, AGE3702
ASSIGNMENT 4
(PORTFOLIO) SEMESTER 2
2026
DUE 5 OCTOBER 2026
Question 1.1
a) How archaeology differs from history and why it is important for understanding communities
without written records
Archaeology and history are both disciplines that study the human past, but they differ
fundamentally in their sources of evidence and methodological approaches. History relies primarily
on written documents and oral traditions to reconstruct and interpret past events, whereas
archaeology is the scientific study of the human past through the excavation and analysis of
material remains — the tangible cultural objects and features that people left behind (AGE3702,
2010:5). As the AGE3702 study guide explains, archaeology is derived from the Greek words
arkhaios (meaning antiquity) and logos (meaning word, conversation or discourse), and is defined
as "the scientific study of antiquity," specifically "the study of the antiquity of humans and their
culture" (AGE3702, 2010:5). Unlike history, which depends on literate observers, archaeology
investigates the preserved remains of ancient societies and is "not the 'treasures' that interest
them, but the data that result from excavating and properly recording archaeological sites"
(AGE3702, 2010:5).
The distinction between archaeology and history is particularly important for understanding
communities that did not leave written records. In southern Africa, many communities — including
San hunter-gatherers, Khoi herders, and early Bantu-speaking farmers — either did not use writing
or their written records were produced by outsiders with their own biases. The AGE3702 study
guide notes that in South Africa, "prehistoric archaeology covers the whole of the Pleistocene... as
well as the greater part of the current geological epoch, the Holocene, until the establishment of
the first permanent European settlements during the seventeenth century AD" (AGE3702, 2010:5).
For these periods, archaeology is the primary — and often the only — source of information about
past lifeways. As the study guide states, "archaeological research has knocked the stuffing out of a
central tenet of South African history" by demonstrating the deep antiquity of human occupation in
the region and challenging colonial narratives that portrayed indigenous peoples as recent
immigrants or as lacking history (AGE3702, 2010:34). At Kruger Cave, for example, archaeological
research has revealed a sequence of occupation spanning from approximately 10,000 BC to the
first millennium AD, including evidence of Oakhurst and Wilton technocomplexes, hunting and
, fishing activities, and the use of plant materials and organic artefacts that would never appear in
written records (Bradfield et al. 2022:4-5). This material evidence provides a voice to communities
whose histories were not documented by literate observers.
b) Four categories of archaeological evidence at Kruger Cave and their contributions to
interpretation
Archaeological sites such as Kruger Cave yield diverse categories of evidence, each contributing
uniquely to our understanding of past human behaviour. Four key categories are:
1. Lithic artefacts (stone tools): Kruger Cave has yielded a range of stone tools including scrapers,
adzes, backed pieces, and flakes made from quartzite, hornfels, dolerite, chert, and andesite
(Bradfield et al. 2022:4, 8-9). These artefacts are crucial for identifying technological traditions
(such as the Oakhurst and Wilton technocomplexes), dating deposits, and inferring activities such
as wood-working, hide-scraping, and hunting. The study guide notes that artefacts are "an
important source of information regarding the culture of extinct peoples" and "may serve different
purposes in connection with different aspects of culture" (AGE3702, 2010:7), enabling
archaeologists to draw inferences about economic, social, and even ideological activities.
2. Faunal remains (animal bones and shell): Excavations at Kruger Cave recovered butchered bone
with butchery marks, bone tools including points and decorated pieces, ivory from warthog,
tortoise carapace and plastron, freshwater mussel shell, and the dermal plate of a catfish (Bradfield
et al. 2022:8-11). These remains provide direct evidence of diet, hunting and fishing strategies,
butchery practices, and tool-making from organic materials. The presence of specific species such
as the extinct springbok (Antidorcas bondi) and freshwater mussels also informs on
palaeoenvironmental conditions and changing subsistence patterns over time (Bradfield et al.
2022:5).
3. Organic artefacts and botanical remains: Kruger Cave is exceptional for its preservation of
organic materials, including a bladder cap with human hair, a bone quiver with poisoned
arrowheads, plant-fibre rope, chewed bark, charred seeds (e.g., Mimusops sp., Strychnos sp.,
Sclerocarya sp.), and ostrich eggshell beads (Bradfield et al. 2022:4, 10, 14). These remains
contribute to interpretations of palaeopharmacology, ancient DNA, diet, ornamentation, and
symbolic behaviour — aspects of past lifeways that are invisible in the stone tool record alone.
4. Rock art and painted images: Kruger Cave contains 57 recorded rock paintings, predominantly
monochrome depictions of humans (many carrying weapons), birds, and animals (Bradfield et al.
2022:5, 16-19). Although the paintings have not been directly dated, they are thought to be
associated with the first millennium AD occupation (Bradfield et al. 2022:5). Rock art provides
insights into symbolic and ritual behaviour, social organisation, and the relationship between
people and their environment, and is a key component of the site's living heritage status (Bradfield
et al. 2022:1).
ASSIGNMENT 4
(PORTFOLIO) SEMESTER 2
2026
DUE 5 OCTOBER 2026
Question 1.1
a) How archaeology differs from history and why it is important for understanding communities
without written records
Archaeology and history are both disciplines that study the human past, but they differ
fundamentally in their sources of evidence and methodological approaches. History relies primarily
on written documents and oral traditions to reconstruct and interpret past events, whereas
archaeology is the scientific study of the human past through the excavation and analysis of
material remains — the tangible cultural objects and features that people left behind (AGE3702,
2010:5). As the AGE3702 study guide explains, archaeology is derived from the Greek words
arkhaios (meaning antiquity) and logos (meaning word, conversation or discourse), and is defined
as "the scientific study of antiquity," specifically "the study of the antiquity of humans and their
culture" (AGE3702, 2010:5). Unlike history, which depends on literate observers, archaeology
investigates the preserved remains of ancient societies and is "not the 'treasures' that interest
them, but the data that result from excavating and properly recording archaeological sites"
(AGE3702, 2010:5).
The distinction between archaeology and history is particularly important for understanding
communities that did not leave written records. In southern Africa, many communities — including
San hunter-gatherers, Khoi herders, and early Bantu-speaking farmers — either did not use writing
or their written records were produced by outsiders with their own biases. The AGE3702 study
guide notes that in South Africa, "prehistoric archaeology covers the whole of the Pleistocene... as
well as the greater part of the current geological epoch, the Holocene, until the establishment of
the first permanent European settlements during the seventeenth century AD" (AGE3702, 2010:5).
For these periods, archaeology is the primary — and often the only — source of information about
past lifeways. As the study guide states, "archaeological research has knocked the stuffing out of a
central tenet of South African history" by demonstrating the deep antiquity of human occupation in
the region and challenging colonial narratives that portrayed indigenous peoples as recent
immigrants or as lacking history (AGE3702, 2010:34). At Kruger Cave, for example, archaeological
research has revealed a sequence of occupation spanning from approximately 10,000 BC to the
first millennium AD, including evidence of Oakhurst and Wilton technocomplexes, hunting and
, fishing activities, and the use of plant materials and organic artefacts that would never appear in
written records (Bradfield et al. 2022:4-5). This material evidence provides a voice to communities
whose histories were not documented by literate observers.
b) Four categories of archaeological evidence at Kruger Cave and their contributions to
interpretation
Archaeological sites such as Kruger Cave yield diverse categories of evidence, each contributing
uniquely to our understanding of past human behaviour. Four key categories are:
1. Lithic artefacts (stone tools): Kruger Cave has yielded a range of stone tools including scrapers,
adzes, backed pieces, and flakes made from quartzite, hornfels, dolerite, chert, and andesite
(Bradfield et al. 2022:4, 8-9). These artefacts are crucial for identifying technological traditions
(such as the Oakhurst and Wilton technocomplexes), dating deposits, and inferring activities such
as wood-working, hide-scraping, and hunting. The study guide notes that artefacts are "an
important source of information regarding the culture of extinct peoples" and "may serve different
purposes in connection with different aspects of culture" (AGE3702, 2010:7), enabling
archaeologists to draw inferences about economic, social, and even ideological activities.
2. Faunal remains (animal bones and shell): Excavations at Kruger Cave recovered butchered bone
with butchery marks, bone tools including points and decorated pieces, ivory from warthog,
tortoise carapace and plastron, freshwater mussel shell, and the dermal plate of a catfish (Bradfield
et al. 2022:8-11). These remains provide direct evidence of diet, hunting and fishing strategies,
butchery practices, and tool-making from organic materials. The presence of specific species such
as the extinct springbok (Antidorcas bondi) and freshwater mussels also informs on
palaeoenvironmental conditions and changing subsistence patterns over time (Bradfield et al.
2022:5).
3. Organic artefacts and botanical remains: Kruger Cave is exceptional for its preservation of
organic materials, including a bladder cap with human hair, a bone quiver with poisoned
arrowheads, plant-fibre rope, chewed bark, charred seeds (e.g., Mimusops sp., Strychnos sp.,
Sclerocarya sp.), and ostrich eggshell beads (Bradfield et al. 2022:4, 10, 14). These remains
contribute to interpretations of palaeopharmacology, ancient DNA, diet, ornamentation, and
symbolic behaviour — aspects of past lifeways that are invisible in the stone tool record alone.
4. Rock art and painted images: Kruger Cave contains 57 recorded rock paintings, predominantly
monochrome depictions of humans (many carrying weapons), birds, and animals (Bradfield et al.
2022:5, 16-19). Although the paintings have not been directly dated, they are thought to be
associated with the first millennium AD occupation (Bradfield et al. 2022:5). Rock art provides
insights into symbolic and ritual behaviour, social organisation, and the relationship between
people and their environment, and is a key component of the site's living heritage status (Bradfield
et al. 2022:1).
