PATHOPHYSIOLOGY 6TH EDITION EXAM 2026
LATEST UPDATE QUESTIONS AND CORRECT
VERIFIED ANSWERS ALREADY GRADE A+
Pattern recognition receptors (PRRS) - ANS-recognize a much more limited array of specific
molecules
Pattern associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) - ANS-products of cellular damage
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) - ANS-expressed on the surface of many cells that have direct and
early contact with potential pathogenic microorganisms
Complement receptors - ANS-primarily expressed on macrophages and facilitate recognition
of phagocytosis of bacterial pathogens, as well as damaged cells and altered soluble
lipoproteins associated with vascular damage
NOD-like receptors - ANS-cytoplasmic receptors that recognize products of microbes and
damaged cells
Interleukins (IL) - ANS-produced primarily by macrophages and lymphocytes in response to
stimulation of PRRs or by other cytokines
Interleukin-1 (IL-1) - ANS-proinflammatory
IL-10 - ANS-anti-inflammatory
,tumor necrosis factor-alpha - ANS-secreted by macrophages in response to PAMP and toll-like
receptor recognition, induces fever by acting as an endogenous pyrogen, increases synthesis
of inflammatory serum proteins, causes muscle wasting (cachexia) and intravascular
thrombosis
Interferon (IFN) - ANS-members of a family of cytokines that protect against viral infections,
produced and released by virally infected host cells in response to viral double-stranded RNA,
protects neighboring healthy cells
Types IFN-a and IFN-B which induce production of antiviral proteins
IFN-y increases microbicidal activity of macrophages
Mast Cells - ANS-cellular bags of granules located in the loose connective tissue close to blood
vessels. (i.e. skin, digestive lining, and respiratory tract) They contain histamine, cytokines and
chemotaxis factors
Basophils - ANS-found in blood and probably function in same way as mast cells, least
prevalent granulocytes
Degranulation - ANS-release of the contents of mast cell granules, chemotactic factors-
neutrophil chemotactic factor which attracts neutrophils
eosinophil chemotactic factor of anaphylaxis (ECF-A) attracts eosinophils
synthesis - ANS-new production and release of mediators in response to a stimulus
Histamine - ANS-vasoactive amine that causes temporary, rapid constriction of the large blood
vessels and the dilation of the post capillary venules, retraction endothelial cells lining the
capillaries
chemotaxis - ANS-directional movement of cells along a chemical gradient formed by a
chemotactic factor
, synthesis of mediators of inflammation - ANS-What does the activation of mast cels initiate
leukotrienes - ANS-product or arachidonic acid (lipids) from mast cell membranes, similar
effects to histamine in later stages
prostaglandins - ANS-similar effects to leukotrienes; they induce pain (ADVIL TARGET)
aspirin and some other non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs block the synthesis of
prostaglandins, thereby inhibiting inflammation and pain
Platelet-activating factor - ANS-similar effect to leukotrienes and platelet activation
Endothelium - ANS-endothelial cells adhere to underlying connective tissue matrix, interact
with circulation cells, platelets, plasma proteins, and regulate circulating inflammatory
components, damage to these initiates platelet adherence
Platelets - ANS-activated by tissue destruction and inflammation, activation leads to
interaction with coagulation cascade to stop bleeding, degranulation with serotonin release
(acts like histamine)
Neutrophils most common - ANS-What is the most common phagocyte?
Neutrophils - ANS-(Also referred to as polymorphonuclear neutrophils PMNs) predominate in
early inflammatory responses, ingest bacteria, dead cells, and cellular debris, cells are short
lived and become a component of the purulent exudate
Eosinophils - ANS-mildly phagocytic, defense against parasites and regulation of vascular
mediators
LATEST UPDATE QUESTIONS AND CORRECT
VERIFIED ANSWERS ALREADY GRADE A+
Pattern recognition receptors (PRRS) - ANS-recognize a much more limited array of specific
molecules
Pattern associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) - ANS-products of cellular damage
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) - ANS-expressed on the surface of many cells that have direct and
early contact with potential pathogenic microorganisms
Complement receptors - ANS-primarily expressed on macrophages and facilitate recognition
of phagocytosis of bacterial pathogens, as well as damaged cells and altered soluble
lipoproteins associated with vascular damage
NOD-like receptors - ANS-cytoplasmic receptors that recognize products of microbes and
damaged cells
Interleukins (IL) - ANS-produced primarily by macrophages and lymphocytes in response to
stimulation of PRRs or by other cytokines
Interleukin-1 (IL-1) - ANS-proinflammatory
IL-10 - ANS-anti-inflammatory
,tumor necrosis factor-alpha - ANS-secreted by macrophages in response to PAMP and toll-like
receptor recognition, induces fever by acting as an endogenous pyrogen, increases synthesis
of inflammatory serum proteins, causes muscle wasting (cachexia) and intravascular
thrombosis
Interferon (IFN) - ANS-members of a family of cytokines that protect against viral infections,
produced and released by virally infected host cells in response to viral double-stranded RNA,
protects neighboring healthy cells
Types IFN-a and IFN-B which induce production of antiviral proteins
IFN-y increases microbicidal activity of macrophages
Mast Cells - ANS-cellular bags of granules located in the loose connective tissue close to blood
vessels. (i.e. skin, digestive lining, and respiratory tract) They contain histamine, cytokines and
chemotaxis factors
Basophils - ANS-found in blood and probably function in same way as mast cells, least
prevalent granulocytes
Degranulation - ANS-release of the contents of mast cell granules, chemotactic factors-
neutrophil chemotactic factor which attracts neutrophils
eosinophil chemotactic factor of anaphylaxis (ECF-A) attracts eosinophils
synthesis - ANS-new production and release of mediators in response to a stimulus
Histamine - ANS-vasoactive amine that causes temporary, rapid constriction of the large blood
vessels and the dilation of the post capillary venules, retraction endothelial cells lining the
capillaries
chemotaxis - ANS-directional movement of cells along a chemical gradient formed by a
chemotactic factor
, synthesis of mediators of inflammation - ANS-What does the activation of mast cels initiate
leukotrienes - ANS-product or arachidonic acid (lipids) from mast cell membranes, similar
effects to histamine in later stages
prostaglandins - ANS-similar effects to leukotrienes; they induce pain (ADVIL TARGET)
aspirin and some other non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs block the synthesis of
prostaglandins, thereby inhibiting inflammation and pain
Platelet-activating factor - ANS-similar effect to leukotrienes and platelet activation
Endothelium - ANS-endothelial cells adhere to underlying connective tissue matrix, interact
with circulation cells, platelets, plasma proteins, and regulate circulating inflammatory
components, damage to these initiates platelet adherence
Platelets - ANS-activated by tissue destruction and inflammation, activation leads to
interaction with coagulation cascade to stop bleeding, degranulation with serotonin release
(acts like histamine)
Neutrophils most common - ANS-What is the most common phagocyte?
Neutrophils - ANS-(Also referred to as polymorphonuclear neutrophils PMNs) predominate in
early inflammatory responses, ingest bacteria, dead cells, and cellular debris, cells are short
lived and become a component of the purulent exudate
Eosinophils - ANS-mildly phagocytic, defense against parasites and regulation of vascular
mediators
