NURS 5350 Advanced Pathophysiology Exam 2
Questions & Answers
What are Exotoxins?
Enzymes released during growth causing specific responses.
What are Endotoxins?
Contained in cell walls of gram-negative bacteria and released during lysis of bacteria.
How do antibiotics work against bacterial infections?
Antibiotics work by prohibiting protein synthesis.
What bacteria is the major cause of hospital acquired (nosocomial) infections and antibiotic
resistance?
Staphylococcus aureus.
What are fungal infections?
Systemic infection is usually from immunosuppression.
Fungal infections are so toxic to humans as fungus have similar cell compositions to human
cells.
What is the most common fungal infection?
Candida albicans
How is tissue damage caused with parasitic infections?
Tissue damage by parasites is secondary to release of enzymes that destroy surrounding
extracellular matrix and tissue.
What is the most common parasitic infection worldwide?
Malaria.
What is malaria?
Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by parasites that are transmitted to people through
the bites of infected mosquitos.
Infected anopheles mosquito.
,Parasite enters the bloodstream, survives in the liver, and invades parenchymal cells.
Liver cells rupture and thousands of parasites enter blood, infecting RBCs.
What is the most common affliction of humans and includes the common cold, cold sores,
hepatitis, HIV?
Viral Diseases.
What is the viral life cycle?
1. Attachment- it attaches or binds itself to the host
2. Penetrates the host cell.
3. Releases genetic information into the host cytoplasm (RNA viruses enter the host nucleus;
DNA viruses enter host nucleus and may integrate into host DNA; May make mRNA.
Influenza Virus: Why we have to get new antiviral each year?
Surface proteins undergo change each year.
HIV facts in US?
About 13% of the people who have HIV don't know it and need testing.
Estimated new HIV infections declined 12% from 36,500 in 2017 to 32,100 in 2021.
Clinical manifestations of HIV? Diagnosis?
Window period: infectious but asymptomatic.
Fatigue, headache, muscle aches, fever (may be asymptomatic for years).
Diagnosis: CD4+ T-cell numbers are at or below 200 cells/uL (depending on age).
What are antimicrobials? What are their mechanisms?
Natural products of fungus, bacteria, and organisms to kill or inhibit the growth of other
microorganisms.
Bacteriostatic: Prevents growth.
Bactericidal: Directly kills microorganisms.
Mechanism: Inhibits production and function of the cell wall, blocks DNA replication, inhibits
protein synthesis, and interferes with folic acid metabolism.
What are antivirals?
,Are sometimes less successful because viruses use host enzymes.
What are the four clinical stages of the process of infection and describe each?
Incubation phase: period from initial exposure to the onset of of the first symptoms; can last
hours to years.
Prodromal phase: Starts with initial symptoms is often very mild with feelings of discomfort and
tiredness.
Invasion phase: invasion is farther and affects other body tissues, symptoms of illness are at
their worst.
Convalescence phase: (RECOVERY) recovery occurs and symptoms decline, or the disease is
fatal, or has period of latency.
What activates almost every aspect of inflammation?
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS).
Clinical manifestations of infection?
fatigue
malaise
weakness
concentration loss
aching
loss of appetite
FEVER: HALLMARK SIGN
leukocytosis
What is virulence?
Capacity of a pathogen to cause severe disease; How potent.
Infectious Disease Classification: Endemic?
Diseases with relatively high, but constant, rates of infection in a particular population.
Infectious Disease Classification: Epidemic?
Number of new infections in a particular population that greatly exceeds the number usually
observed.
, Infectious Disease Classification: Pandemic?
An epidemic that spreads over a large area such as a continent or worldwide.
Bacterial Infection: Gram + vs Gram -
Gram-Positive: Above diaphragm.
Gram-Negative: Below diaphragm.
What is the definition of stress?
Stress is viewed as the state of affairs rising when a person relates to situations in certain ways.
Causes psychologic and physical responses.
What are examples of stressors? Definition of stressors?
Infection, noise, decreased oxygen supply, pain, malnutrition, heat, cold, trauma, prolonged
exertion, radiation, responses to life events, obesity, old age, drugs, disease, surgery, and
medical treatment.
Elicit a stress response or stress system through actions of the nervous and endocrine systems.
What is the General Adaptation Syndrome? (GAS). Three phases?
Alarm Phase: Arousal of body defenses-fight or flight (Activates sympathetic nervous system).
Stage of Resistance or Adaptation: Mobilization that contributes to fight or flight (Begins with
actions of adrenal hormones: Cortisol, epinephrine, and noepinephrine).
Stage of Exhaustion (allostatic overload): Progressive breakdown of compensatory
mechanisms (may lead to disease).
What is the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis? How does it relate to GAS?
Stress and/or stressor hit your brain and hypothalamus secrets CORTISOL RELEASING
HORMONE (CRH). CRH then goes to Anterior Pituitary and secrets Adreno-corticotropic
hormone (ACTH) which goes to the Adrenal Glands and stimulate the Cortex of Adrenal
Glands which stimulates release of Cortisol which goes back to the brain and identifies stress
and causes Metabolic effects.
Describe the Stress Response Neural Recognition Pathway?
Questions & Answers
What are Exotoxins?
Enzymes released during growth causing specific responses.
What are Endotoxins?
Contained in cell walls of gram-negative bacteria and released during lysis of bacteria.
How do antibiotics work against bacterial infections?
Antibiotics work by prohibiting protein synthesis.
What bacteria is the major cause of hospital acquired (nosocomial) infections and antibiotic
resistance?
Staphylococcus aureus.
What are fungal infections?
Systemic infection is usually from immunosuppression.
Fungal infections are so toxic to humans as fungus have similar cell compositions to human
cells.
What is the most common fungal infection?
Candida albicans
How is tissue damage caused with parasitic infections?
Tissue damage by parasites is secondary to release of enzymes that destroy surrounding
extracellular matrix and tissue.
What is the most common parasitic infection worldwide?
Malaria.
What is malaria?
Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by parasites that are transmitted to people through
the bites of infected mosquitos.
Infected anopheles mosquito.
,Parasite enters the bloodstream, survives in the liver, and invades parenchymal cells.
Liver cells rupture and thousands of parasites enter blood, infecting RBCs.
What is the most common affliction of humans and includes the common cold, cold sores,
hepatitis, HIV?
Viral Diseases.
What is the viral life cycle?
1. Attachment- it attaches or binds itself to the host
2. Penetrates the host cell.
3. Releases genetic information into the host cytoplasm (RNA viruses enter the host nucleus;
DNA viruses enter host nucleus and may integrate into host DNA; May make mRNA.
Influenza Virus: Why we have to get new antiviral each year?
Surface proteins undergo change each year.
HIV facts in US?
About 13% of the people who have HIV don't know it and need testing.
Estimated new HIV infections declined 12% from 36,500 in 2017 to 32,100 in 2021.
Clinical manifestations of HIV? Diagnosis?
Window period: infectious but asymptomatic.
Fatigue, headache, muscle aches, fever (may be asymptomatic for years).
Diagnosis: CD4+ T-cell numbers are at or below 200 cells/uL (depending on age).
What are antimicrobials? What are their mechanisms?
Natural products of fungus, bacteria, and organisms to kill or inhibit the growth of other
microorganisms.
Bacteriostatic: Prevents growth.
Bactericidal: Directly kills microorganisms.
Mechanism: Inhibits production and function of the cell wall, blocks DNA replication, inhibits
protein synthesis, and interferes with folic acid metabolism.
What are antivirals?
,Are sometimes less successful because viruses use host enzymes.
What are the four clinical stages of the process of infection and describe each?
Incubation phase: period from initial exposure to the onset of of the first symptoms; can last
hours to years.
Prodromal phase: Starts with initial symptoms is often very mild with feelings of discomfort and
tiredness.
Invasion phase: invasion is farther and affects other body tissues, symptoms of illness are at
their worst.
Convalescence phase: (RECOVERY) recovery occurs and symptoms decline, or the disease is
fatal, or has period of latency.
What activates almost every aspect of inflammation?
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS).
Clinical manifestations of infection?
fatigue
malaise
weakness
concentration loss
aching
loss of appetite
FEVER: HALLMARK SIGN
leukocytosis
What is virulence?
Capacity of a pathogen to cause severe disease; How potent.
Infectious Disease Classification: Endemic?
Diseases with relatively high, but constant, rates of infection in a particular population.
Infectious Disease Classification: Epidemic?
Number of new infections in a particular population that greatly exceeds the number usually
observed.
, Infectious Disease Classification: Pandemic?
An epidemic that spreads over a large area such as a continent or worldwide.
Bacterial Infection: Gram + vs Gram -
Gram-Positive: Above diaphragm.
Gram-Negative: Below diaphragm.
What is the definition of stress?
Stress is viewed as the state of affairs rising when a person relates to situations in certain ways.
Causes psychologic and physical responses.
What are examples of stressors? Definition of stressors?
Infection, noise, decreased oxygen supply, pain, malnutrition, heat, cold, trauma, prolonged
exertion, radiation, responses to life events, obesity, old age, drugs, disease, surgery, and
medical treatment.
Elicit a stress response or stress system through actions of the nervous and endocrine systems.
What is the General Adaptation Syndrome? (GAS). Three phases?
Alarm Phase: Arousal of body defenses-fight or flight (Activates sympathetic nervous system).
Stage of Resistance or Adaptation: Mobilization that contributes to fight or flight (Begins with
actions of adrenal hormones: Cortisol, epinephrine, and noepinephrine).
Stage of Exhaustion (allostatic overload): Progressive breakdown of compensatory
mechanisms (may lead to disease).
What is the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis? How does it relate to GAS?
Stress and/or stressor hit your brain and hypothalamus secrets CORTISOL RELEASING
HORMONE (CRH). CRH then goes to Anterior Pituitary and secrets Adreno-corticotropic
hormone (ACTH) which goes to the Adrenal Glands and stimulate the Cortex of Adrenal
Glands which stimulates release of Cortisol which goes back to the brain and identifies stress
and causes Metabolic effects.
Describe the Stress Response Neural Recognition Pathway?
