WGU C224 Study Set
research literature is the set of published research studies on a particular topic
various studies with the same result = CONFIDENCE
*Don't trust a single research study as the final word on a topic!*
AERA American Educational Research Association - largest and most prestigious research
association in the field of education
abstract a brief summary of what is included in the article.
provides a concise breakdown of article goals, methods, and tentative results
researchers choose to include
understanding (type of research objective)
attempting to learn about and generate ideas about specific and unique phenomena
How to determine if understanding was the objective of a ask yourself these questions:
research study
1. were the researchers studying a phenomenon or some aspect of a phenomenon
about WHICH LITTLE WAS PREVIOUSLY KNOWN?
2. Did the researchers choose to study a phenomenon WITHOUT ANY
PRECONCEIVED NOTIONS?
3. Were the researchers trying to "DISCOVER" IMPORTANT FACTORS or
"generate" new ideas for further research?
description (type of research objective)
an attempt to describe the characteristics of a phenomenon.
one of the most basic activities in research.
ex. observing a phenomenon and recording what one sees
descriptive research (type of research objective)
provide an accurate description or picture of the status or characteristics of a
situation or phenomenon.
**focus is not specifically on searching out cause-and-effect relationships, but rather
on relating the variables that exist in a given situation and any relevant relationships
that exist among them.
Steps in Descriptive Research 1. randomly select a sample from a defined population.
2. determine the sample characteristics
3. infer the characteristics of the population based on the sample
explanation (type of research objective)
how and why a phenomenon operates as it does
*the objective of the majority of educational research is explanation*
How to determine if Explanation is the primary objective of ask yourself these questions:
a research study
1. Were the researchers trying to DEVELOP A THEORY about a phenomenon to
explain how and why it operates as it does?
2. Were the researchers trying to explain how phenomena operate by
IDENTIFYING CAUSE-AND-EFFECT relationships?
, WGU C224 Study Set
explanatory research testing hypotheses and theories that explain the functions of a phenomenon in
detail
**researcher is focused on establishing clear and defensible evidence for cause-
and-effect relationships.
***experimental research is the strongest form of explanatory research for providing
evidence of cause and effect.
prediction (type of research objective)
forecast a phenomenon, wherein there is an association made between two points
in time.
**when researchers determine cause-and-effect operations, they can use this
information to form predictions
predictive research predict the future of one or more dependent (or criterion) variables on the basis of
one or more independent (or predictor) variables.
**is most applicable when researchers want to see how well they can predict a
certain outcome based on one or more independent or predictor variables.
influence (motivation) (type of research objective)
attempting to apply research to make certain outcomes occur
**application of research knowledge to control various aspects of the world
How to determine if influence is the primary objective of a ask yourself these questions:
research study
1. Were the researchers applying research knowledge to MAKE SOMETHING
USEFUL HAPPEN in the world?
2. Were the researchers checking a "DEMONSTRATION PROGRAM" to see if it
works in practice?
Integration Perspective (type of research objective)
Two key perspectives: Emic and Etic
consolidating insights from multiple investigators, theories/perspectives, sets of
data, and methods in order to understand a given entity of study, such as a school,
or a classroom or population.
Emic Perspective (when seeking integration objective) - provides insider's perspective
- gives meaning and views of people being studied
- gets inside the heads of groups members
- includes local languages, forms of expression, and jargon/slang
Etuc Perspective (when seeking integration objective) - provides external, social scientific perspective
- gives perspective of objective researcher
- uses social scientific concepts, terms, and procedures to describe and explain
behavior
- brings research questions from outside
5 General TYPES of research 1. Basic
2. Evaluation
3. Action
4. Orientational
5. Applied
, WGU C224 Study Set
basic research generating fundamental knowledge and theoretical understanding about primary
human functions and other natural processes.
*Usually conducted by using rigorous research methods (e.g. experimental) under
tightly controlled laboratory conditions.
(opposite of applied)
applied research answering real-world, practical questions in order to provide relatively immediate
solutions
**conducted in more natural or real-world settings as opposed to basic research.
**results would potentially have practical implications for educational policy
**applied research studies often lead to intervention programs aimed at improving
societal conditions
evaluation research determine how well social or educational programs work in real-world settings, as
well as any improvement possibilities
**determines the worth, merit, or quality of a specific program.
***two types of evaluation: formative & summative
formative evaluation is concerned with developing judgments of how a program can be improved and
aids developers and staff design and implement programs.
summative evaulation focuses on cultivating judgements of a programs effectiveness and any decisions
regarding continuation.
**is especially helpful for policymakers to appraise previous future-funding decisions
and make future ones.
5 varieties of evaluation - based on a fundamental 1. needs assessment - is there a need for this type of program?
evaluation questions
2. theory assessment - is this program conceptualized in a way that it should work?
3. implementation assessment - was this program implemented properly and
according to the program plan?
4. impact assessment - did this program have an impact on its intended targets?
5. efficiency assessment - is this program cost-effective?
action research addressing and solving specific problems which local practitioners confront their
schools and communities, conducting research directly within the classroom or work
environment.
**useful because it helps practitioners integrate theory and research with practice.
orientational research collecting information to aid in advancing a specific ideological, political position, or
orientation that a researcher believes will improve society.
*"giving voice" and increased power to the parties considered disadvantaged in
society
common areas of orientational research - class stratification (i.e. income and wealth inequality)
- gender inequality
- racial and ethic inequality
- sexual orientation inequality
- international inequality (i.e. rich and poor nations)
- disability rights and inequality
, WGU C224 Study Set
epistemology "theory of knowledge and its justification"
studying knowledge itself - including its nature, process of generation, how it is
necessary, and the standards that are used to judge its adequacy.
two main sources of knoweldge experience & reasoning
experience
- empiricism
reasoning
- rationalism
- deductive reasoning
- inductive reasoning
empiricism idea that all knowledge comes from experience
*people learn by observing, rely on sensory perception (and build their own
personal "truth" of the world)
- look
- feel
- hear
- smell
- taste
empirical statement a statement based on observation, experiment, or experience
example: "I know the car is blue because I saw it."
reasoning or rationalism philosophical idea that reason is the primary source of knowledge
**reason involves thinking about an idea or situation and developing an
understanding through analysis and logic
two types of reasoning: deductive and inductive
deductive reasoning process of drawing a conclusion that is essentially true if the underlying premises
are true
- one form of deductive reasoning is syllogism
Ex:
Major Premise: all school teachers are moral
Minor Premise: John is a teacher
Conclusion: Therefore, John is moral.
inductive reasoning holds that the foundational premises act as helpful but not decisive reasons toward
acceptance of a conclusion
Ex:
Major Premise: Socrates is dead
Minor Premise: Socrates was a man
Conclusion: Therefore, man is mortal
probabilistic (form of reasoning) stating what is probable to occur, not what will necessarily occur, thereby opening
himself or herself up to a risk of being wrong
problem of induction the future might not resemble the past
science is an approach to the generation of knowledge holding empirical data in high regard
and follows certain norms and practices that developed over time because of their
usefullness
research literature is the set of published research studies on a particular topic
various studies with the same result = CONFIDENCE
*Don't trust a single research study as the final word on a topic!*
AERA American Educational Research Association - largest and most prestigious research
association in the field of education
abstract a brief summary of what is included in the article.
provides a concise breakdown of article goals, methods, and tentative results
researchers choose to include
understanding (type of research objective)
attempting to learn about and generate ideas about specific and unique phenomena
How to determine if understanding was the objective of a ask yourself these questions:
research study
1. were the researchers studying a phenomenon or some aspect of a phenomenon
about WHICH LITTLE WAS PREVIOUSLY KNOWN?
2. Did the researchers choose to study a phenomenon WITHOUT ANY
PRECONCEIVED NOTIONS?
3. Were the researchers trying to "DISCOVER" IMPORTANT FACTORS or
"generate" new ideas for further research?
description (type of research objective)
an attempt to describe the characteristics of a phenomenon.
one of the most basic activities in research.
ex. observing a phenomenon and recording what one sees
descriptive research (type of research objective)
provide an accurate description or picture of the status or characteristics of a
situation or phenomenon.
**focus is not specifically on searching out cause-and-effect relationships, but rather
on relating the variables that exist in a given situation and any relevant relationships
that exist among them.
Steps in Descriptive Research 1. randomly select a sample from a defined population.
2. determine the sample characteristics
3. infer the characteristics of the population based on the sample
explanation (type of research objective)
how and why a phenomenon operates as it does
*the objective of the majority of educational research is explanation*
How to determine if Explanation is the primary objective of ask yourself these questions:
a research study
1. Were the researchers trying to DEVELOP A THEORY about a phenomenon to
explain how and why it operates as it does?
2. Were the researchers trying to explain how phenomena operate by
IDENTIFYING CAUSE-AND-EFFECT relationships?
, WGU C224 Study Set
explanatory research testing hypotheses and theories that explain the functions of a phenomenon in
detail
**researcher is focused on establishing clear and defensible evidence for cause-
and-effect relationships.
***experimental research is the strongest form of explanatory research for providing
evidence of cause and effect.
prediction (type of research objective)
forecast a phenomenon, wherein there is an association made between two points
in time.
**when researchers determine cause-and-effect operations, they can use this
information to form predictions
predictive research predict the future of one or more dependent (or criterion) variables on the basis of
one or more independent (or predictor) variables.
**is most applicable when researchers want to see how well they can predict a
certain outcome based on one or more independent or predictor variables.
influence (motivation) (type of research objective)
attempting to apply research to make certain outcomes occur
**application of research knowledge to control various aspects of the world
How to determine if influence is the primary objective of a ask yourself these questions:
research study
1. Were the researchers applying research knowledge to MAKE SOMETHING
USEFUL HAPPEN in the world?
2. Were the researchers checking a "DEMONSTRATION PROGRAM" to see if it
works in practice?
Integration Perspective (type of research objective)
Two key perspectives: Emic and Etic
consolidating insights from multiple investigators, theories/perspectives, sets of
data, and methods in order to understand a given entity of study, such as a school,
or a classroom or population.
Emic Perspective (when seeking integration objective) - provides insider's perspective
- gives meaning and views of people being studied
- gets inside the heads of groups members
- includes local languages, forms of expression, and jargon/slang
Etuc Perspective (when seeking integration objective) - provides external, social scientific perspective
- gives perspective of objective researcher
- uses social scientific concepts, terms, and procedures to describe and explain
behavior
- brings research questions from outside
5 General TYPES of research 1. Basic
2. Evaluation
3. Action
4. Orientational
5. Applied
, WGU C224 Study Set
basic research generating fundamental knowledge and theoretical understanding about primary
human functions and other natural processes.
*Usually conducted by using rigorous research methods (e.g. experimental) under
tightly controlled laboratory conditions.
(opposite of applied)
applied research answering real-world, practical questions in order to provide relatively immediate
solutions
**conducted in more natural or real-world settings as opposed to basic research.
**results would potentially have practical implications for educational policy
**applied research studies often lead to intervention programs aimed at improving
societal conditions
evaluation research determine how well social or educational programs work in real-world settings, as
well as any improvement possibilities
**determines the worth, merit, or quality of a specific program.
***two types of evaluation: formative & summative
formative evaluation is concerned with developing judgments of how a program can be improved and
aids developers and staff design and implement programs.
summative evaulation focuses on cultivating judgements of a programs effectiveness and any decisions
regarding continuation.
**is especially helpful for policymakers to appraise previous future-funding decisions
and make future ones.
5 varieties of evaluation - based on a fundamental 1. needs assessment - is there a need for this type of program?
evaluation questions
2. theory assessment - is this program conceptualized in a way that it should work?
3. implementation assessment - was this program implemented properly and
according to the program plan?
4. impact assessment - did this program have an impact on its intended targets?
5. efficiency assessment - is this program cost-effective?
action research addressing and solving specific problems which local practitioners confront their
schools and communities, conducting research directly within the classroom or work
environment.
**useful because it helps practitioners integrate theory and research with practice.
orientational research collecting information to aid in advancing a specific ideological, political position, or
orientation that a researcher believes will improve society.
*"giving voice" and increased power to the parties considered disadvantaged in
society
common areas of orientational research - class stratification (i.e. income and wealth inequality)
- gender inequality
- racial and ethic inequality
- sexual orientation inequality
- international inequality (i.e. rich and poor nations)
- disability rights and inequality
, WGU C224 Study Set
epistemology "theory of knowledge and its justification"
studying knowledge itself - including its nature, process of generation, how it is
necessary, and the standards that are used to judge its adequacy.
two main sources of knoweldge experience & reasoning
experience
- empiricism
reasoning
- rationalism
- deductive reasoning
- inductive reasoning
empiricism idea that all knowledge comes from experience
*people learn by observing, rely on sensory perception (and build their own
personal "truth" of the world)
- look
- feel
- hear
- smell
- taste
empirical statement a statement based on observation, experiment, or experience
example: "I know the car is blue because I saw it."
reasoning or rationalism philosophical idea that reason is the primary source of knowledge
**reason involves thinking about an idea or situation and developing an
understanding through analysis and logic
two types of reasoning: deductive and inductive
deductive reasoning process of drawing a conclusion that is essentially true if the underlying premises
are true
- one form of deductive reasoning is syllogism
Ex:
Major Premise: all school teachers are moral
Minor Premise: John is a teacher
Conclusion: Therefore, John is moral.
inductive reasoning holds that the foundational premises act as helpful but not decisive reasons toward
acceptance of a conclusion
Ex:
Major Premise: Socrates is dead
Minor Premise: Socrates was a man
Conclusion: Therefore, man is mortal
probabilistic (form of reasoning) stating what is probable to occur, not what will necessarily occur, thereby opening
himself or herself up to a risk of being wrong
problem of induction the future might not resemble the past
science is an approach to the generation of knowledge holding empirical data in high regard
and follows certain norms and practices that developed over time because of their
usefullness
