Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisation
Chapter Notes — Social Science, Class 9
Introduction: Writing and the Harappan Script
Human history goes back much further than the kingdoms and empires studied earlier. The period before writing is
understood mainly through archaeological evidence, since written languages emerged at different times in different
parts of the world.
• The Sindhu-Sarasvati (Harappan) Civilisation used a pictographic script (Sindhu lipi) found on seals and
pottery — it has not yet been deciphered.
• Cuneiform (Sumerians, Mesopotamia) and Hieroglyphic (ancient Egypt) scripts flourished around the same
time and have been deciphered — marking the start of the historical period, about 5000 years ago.
• From about 400 BCE, the Brahmi script was used in southern India and the Ganga Valley, later formalised by
Emperor Ashoka.
The Invention of Writing: Before and After
Aspect Before Writing After Writing
Human History Over 99% of human history (~3 million Less than 1% of human history (last 5000
to 5000 years ago) years)
Main Source Tools, implements, artefacts Material remains and written documents
Lives of People Difficult to understand thoughts/ideas Literature reveals names, events,
social/cultural life
Time Approximate dating only Relatively accurate dating from
Measurement documents
Why Should We Study Early Human History?
• It helps us understand biological and cultural evolution in relation to climate and environment.
• Biological evolution — gradual change through which australopithecines evolved into modern humans (Homo
sapiens).
• Cultural evolution — how humans adapted during the Quaternary Period, developing tools and technology.
• Human life shifted gradually from hunting-gathering to agriculture, laying the foundation for civilisation.
Key Terms
• Hominin — modern humans and our early human-like ancestors.
• Homo erectus — an early upright/bipedal human ancestor.
Out of Africa: Early Human Dispersal
• Earliest ancestors evolved in Africa, beginning to move out around 2 million years ago.
• Homo erectus was the first to leave Africa, carrying stone tools like hand axes and cleavers (dispersal between
2 million and 500,000 years ago).
• A second wave around 125,000 years ago was linked to Homo sapiens, who evolved in Africa ~300,000 years
ago and spread worldwide.
, Who Were Our Human Ancestors?
Around 3.3 million years ago, one of our ancestors made the earliest stone tools — the beginning of 'human
behaviour'. Humans came to be called hominins, or tool makers.
Ancestor Lived Tools / Features
Homo habilis ('handy man') Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania & Kenya, 2-6 Chopper stone tools
million years ago
Homo erectus Eastern African Rift Valley, ~2 million Handaxes and cleavers; first to
years ago migrate out of Africa
Homo neanderthalensis Europe & SW Asia till ~40,000 years ago Middle Palaeolithic flake tools
Homo sapiens Worldwide, present day The only living human species;
complex technologies
• Archaeologists explore early human sites to find tools, bones, and objects, and experiment with making similar
tools to understand daily life.
Periods in Early Human History
Early human history is divided into periods based on technological progress:
Period Key Features
Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age) Hunting-gathering lifestyle; simple stone tools
Mesolithic Transitional phase; microlithic (tiny stone) tools
Neolithic (New Stone Age) Shift to agriculture and settled life; polished stone tools
Chalcolithic (Copper and Stone Use of copper alongside stone tools; early metallurgy
Age)
Bronze Age Bronze metallurgy (copper + tin); trade, towns, early civilisations
Iron Age Widespread iron metallurgy; stronger tools and weapons
Palaeolithic Hunter-Gatherers
• In the Indian subcontinent, the oldest human settlement dates back to about 2 million years ago — e.g.
Attirampakkam (Tamil Nadu) and Isampur (Karnataka).
• Large cutting tools (handaxes, cleavers, scrapers, choppers) made of quartzite and limestone were used to chop
meat, dig tubers, and scrape skins.
• Later, smaller tools (scrapers, borers, points) improved hunting; eventually humans invented the bow and arrow
and microblade tools.
• Homo sapiens developed symbolic communication, cave paintings, body pigments, and the first beads of stone,
bone, and shell — spreading to Australia and the Americas between 50,000 and 12,000 years ago.
Mesolithic Hunter-Gatherers
• Around 12,000 years ago, a warmer climate expanded forests and grasslands, leading to a population boom.
Chapter Notes — Social Science, Class 9
Introduction: Writing and the Harappan Script
Human history goes back much further than the kingdoms and empires studied earlier. The period before writing is
understood mainly through archaeological evidence, since written languages emerged at different times in different
parts of the world.
• The Sindhu-Sarasvati (Harappan) Civilisation used a pictographic script (Sindhu lipi) found on seals and
pottery — it has not yet been deciphered.
• Cuneiform (Sumerians, Mesopotamia) and Hieroglyphic (ancient Egypt) scripts flourished around the same
time and have been deciphered — marking the start of the historical period, about 5000 years ago.
• From about 400 BCE, the Brahmi script was used in southern India and the Ganga Valley, later formalised by
Emperor Ashoka.
The Invention of Writing: Before and After
Aspect Before Writing After Writing
Human History Over 99% of human history (~3 million Less than 1% of human history (last 5000
to 5000 years ago) years)
Main Source Tools, implements, artefacts Material remains and written documents
Lives of People Difficult to understand thoughts/ideas Literature reveals names, events,
social/cultural life
Time Approximate dating only Relatively accurate dating from
Measurement documents
Why Should We Study Early Human History?
• It helps us understand biological and cultural evolution in relation to climate and environment.
• Biological evolution — gradual change through which australopithecines evolved into modern humans (Homo
sapiens).
• Cultural evolution — how humans adapted during the Quaternary Period, developing tools and technology.
• Human life shifted gradually from hunting-gathering to agriculture, laying the foundation for civilisation.
Key Terms
• Hominin — modern humans and our early human-like ancestors.
• Homo erectus — an early upright/bipedal human ancestor.
Out of Africa: Early Human Dispersal
• Earliest ancestors evolved in Africa, beginning to move out around 2 million years ago.
• Homo erectus was the first to leave Africa, carrying stone tools like hand axes and cleavers (dispersal between
2 million and 500,000 years ago).
• A second wave around 125,000 years ago was linked to Homo sapiens, who evolved in Africa ~300,000 years
ago and spread worldwide.
, Who Were Our Human Ancestors?
Around 3.3 million years ago, one of our ancestors made the earliest stone tools — the beginning of 'human
behaviour'. Humans came to be called hominins, or tool makers.
Ancestor Lived Tools / Features
Homo habilis ('handy man') Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania & Kenya, 2-6 Chopper stone tools
million years ago
Homo erectus Eastern African Rift Valley, ~2 million Handaxes and cleavers; first to
years ago migrate out of Africa
Homo neanderthalensis Europe & SW Asia till ~40,000 years ago Middle Palaeolithic flake tools
Homo sapiens Worldwide, present day The only living human species;
complex technologies
• Archaeologists explore early human sites to find tools, bones, and objects, and experiment with making similar
tools to understand daily life.
Periods in Early Human History
Early human history is divided into periods based on technological progress:
Period Key Features
Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age) Hunting-gathering lifestyle; simple stone tools
Mesolithic Transitional phase; microlithic (tiny stone) tools
Neolithic (New Stone Age) Shift to agriculture and settled life; polished stone tools
Chalcolithic (Copper and Stone Use of copper alongside stone tools; early metallurgy
Age)
Bronze Age Bronze metallurgy (copper + tin); trade, towns, early civilisations
Iron Age Widespread iron metallurgy; stronger tools and weapons
Palaeolithic Hunter-Gatherers
• In the Indian subcontinent, the oldest human settlement dates back to about 2 million years ago — e.g.
Attirampakkam (Tamil Nadu) and Isampur (Karnataka).
• Large cutting tools (handaxes, cleavers, scrapers, choppers) made of quartzite and limestone were used to chop
meat, dig tubers, and scrape skins.
• Later, smaller tools (scrapers, borers, points) improved hunting; eventually humans invented the bow and arrow
and microblade tools.
• Homo sapiens developed symbolic communication, cave paintings, body pigments, and the first beads of stone,
bone, and shell — spreading to Australia and the Americas between 50,000 and 12,000 years ago.
Mesolithic Hunter-Gatherers
• Around 12,000 years ago, a warmer climate expanded forests and grasslands, leading to a population boom.
