Inhoudsopgave
Case 1 (How is the brain organized? The start of new insights) ........................................................................ 4
Overall organization ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Brain ............................................................................................................................................................ 4
Cerebral cortex ............................................................................................................................................. 5
Subcortical cerebrum .................................................................................................................................... 5
Cells of the nervous system ........................................................................................................................... 6
Neurotransmitters ........................................................................................................................................ 9
Case 2: how do neurons work? Transmitting messages .................................................................................. 13
What is a neuron? ...................................................................................................................................... 13
Membrane potential (communication between cells in CNS) ....................................................................... 14
How does neurotransmission work?............................................................................................................ 17
Neurotransmitter receptors ........................................................................................................................ 18
Removal from cleft ..................................................................................................................................... 19
Case 3: How do we see? Visual processing and Hermann Grid ....................................................................... 20
Anatomy of the eye .................................................................................................................................... 20
Retinal processing ...................................................................................................................................... 21
.................................................................................................................................................................. 22
The visual pathway..................................................................................................................................... 22
Visual illusions ............................................................................................................................................ 24
Case 4: How do we keep balance? Drinking and driving. ................................................................................ 25
Visual system ............................................................................................................................................. 25
The vestibular system (inner ear) ................................................................................................................ 25
Proprioception (kinesthesia) ....................................................................................................................... 27
Cerebellum ................................................................................................................................................. 29
The effect of alcohol on our balance ........................................................................................................... 30
Cerebellar ataxia ........................................................................................................................................ 31
Case 5: How do we make decisions? Ready-Set-Go ........................................................................................ 32
How to measure decision making ............................................................................................................... 32
Decision making in the brain....................................................................................................................... 34
Case 6: How do we move ............................................................................................................................... 35
Types of movement .................................................................................................................................... 35
Loop movements ........................................................................................................................................ 35
Agonist vs Antagonist EMG......................................................................................................................... 37
Arm at a right angle ................................................................................................................................... 37
,Case 7: How do we move? Neural Control of Movement ............................................................................... 41
Involved structures in the neural motor control system and their functions regarding movements ............... 41
Cortical structures ...................................................................................................................................... 42
the key elements of the neural motor control system and how are they interconnected and hierarchically
organized? ................................................................................................................................................. 45
Elements of reflexive (orange) and intentional (yellow) feedback and their neural organization? ................. 46
Diseases regarding neural control ............................................................................................................... 47
Case 8: how do we move ................................................................................................................................ 51
The macroscopic anatomy of a muscle ........................................................................................................ 51
The anatomy of a basic contractile unit of a muscle .................................................................................... 52
How the muscle is activated (Neuromuscular transmission) ........................................................................ 54
Contraction or excitation of the neuromuscular transmission ...................................................................... 54
Does it matter which type of muscle fiber is activated ................................................................................. 57
Difference between the physiological direct recruitment of motor units ...................................................... 57
Case 9: how do we vary our muscle output .................................................................................................... 59
Muscle work (loop) ..................................................................................................................................... 59
The relation between muscles and torque ................................................................................................... 59
Muscle recruitment .................................................................................................................................... 60
Force-length relationship ............................................................................................................................ 60
Force-velocity relationship .......................................................................................................................... 61
Muscle architecture .................................................................................................................................... 62
Case 10: How do we move ............................................................................................................................. 63
How does EMG work and what does it represent ........................................................................................ 63
How is the process from AP (motor unit) to EMG going ............................................................................... 64
How to measure and process the signals to EMGs tracings.......................................................................... 66
What are the different EMG processing patterns ........................................................................................ 69
What is the relationship between acceleration and force ............................................................................ 71
Angular acceleration patterns from joint-angle patterns ............................................................................. 71
Case 11: in touch with pain ............................................................................................................................ 72
The different kinds of physical pain ............................................................................................................. 72
The different pain receptors........................................................................................................................ 72
Nociceptive pain ......................................................................................................................................... 74
Neuropathic pain........................................................................................................................................ 75
The different laminae of the dorsal horn ..................................................................................................... 77
Pain pathways............................................................................................................................................ 78
Case 12: How do we learn and memorize ....................................................................................................... 81
Different types of memory .......................................................................................................................... 81
, Long-term potentiation .............................................................................................................................. 82
Long-term depression ................................................................................................................................. 84
Link between stress and memory ................................................................................................................ 85
Case 13: how do we perceive stress ............................................................................................................... 86
Physiological response towards a stressor................................................................................................... 86
Fear, stress, and anxiety ............................................................................................................................. 88
The control of the expression of stress, fear and anxiety.............................................................................. 89
The Papez circuit ................................................................................................................................... 89
, Case 1 (How is the brain organized? The start of new insights)
Overall organization
The nervous system is subdivided in the CNS and PNS. The PNS consists of the autonomic
(afferent and (efferent nerves sympathetic and parasympathetic)) and somatic division
(afferent and efferent nerves).
The CNS consists of the brain (cerebrum, brain stem and cerebellum) and the spinal cord.
Brain is divided in ventricles:
Forebrain (prosencephalon) – telencephalon and diencephalon
Midbrain (mesencephalon)
Hindbrain (rhombencephalon) – metencephalon and myelencephalon
Central nervous system
1. Cerebral hemispheres + associated subcortical structures (telencephalon)
2. Diencephalon
3. Mesencephalon
4. Pons (part of metencephalon) brainstem
5. Medulla oblongata (part of the myelencephalon)
6. Cerebellum
7. Spinal cord
The spinal cord passes information between the CNS and the PNS. The spinal cord consists of
30 spinal segments (8 cervical, 12 thoracal, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral)
Protective layers of the brain
Meninges: cerebral membranes that separate the brain from
the skull (dura mater, arachnoid layer and Pia Mater)
- Dura Mater: most outer layer and is tough and inflexible
- Arachnoid membrane: middle layer and has a spider
web like structure
- Subarachnoid space
- Pia mater: most inner layer that contains blood vessels
Brain
Your brain can be divided in three parts: the forebrain,
the midbrain and the hindbrain. The forebrain is
responsible for voluntary actions and the
midbrain/hindbrain are responsible for involuntary
actions.
Forebrain: The forebrain consists of the cerebrum,
thalamus, hypothalamus, and the pituitary gland. The
forebrain plays an important role in thinking, sensing,
emotions and memory.
Midbrain: The midbrain is associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake,
arousal (alertness), and temperature regulation, acting as a sort of relay station for auditory
and visual information.
Case 1 (How is the brain organized? The start of new insights) ........................................................................ 4
Overall organization ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Brain ............................................................................................................................................................ 4
Cerebral cortex ............................................................................................................................................. 5
Subcortical cerebrum .................................................................................................................................... 5
Cells of the nervous system ........................................................................................................................... 6
Neurotransmitters ........................................................................................................................................ 9
Case 2: how do neurons work? Transmitting messages .................................................................................. 13
What is a neuron? ...................................................................................................................................... 13
Membrane potential (communication between cells in CNS) ....................................................................... 14
How does neurotransmission work?............................................................................................................ 17
Neurotransmitter receptors ........................................................................................................................ 18
Removal from cleft ..................................................................................................................................... 19
Case 3: How do we see? Visual processing and Hermann Grid ....................................................................... 20
Anatomy of the eye .................................................................................................................................... 20
Retinal processing ...................................................................................................................................... 21
.................................................................................................................................................................. 22
The visual pathway..................................................................................................................................... 22
Visual illusions ............................................................................................................................................ 24
Case 4: How do we keep balance? Drinking and driving. ................................................................................ 25
Visual system ............................................................................................................................................. 25
The vestibular system (inner ear) ................................................................................................................ 25
Proprioception (kinesthesia) ....................................................................................................................... 27
Cerebellum ................................................................................................................................................. 29
The effect of alcohol on our balance ........................................................................................................... 30
Cerebellar ataxia ........................................................................................................................................ 31
Case 5: How do we make decisions? Ready-Set-Go ........................................................................................ 32
How to measure decision making ............................................................................................................... 32
Decision making in the brain....................................................................................................................... 34
Case 6: How do we move ............................................................................................................................... 35
Types of movement .................................................................................................................................... 35
Loop movements ........................................................................................................................................ 35
Agonist vs Antagonist EMG......................................................................................................................... 37
Arm at a right angle ................................................................................................................................... 37
,Case 7: How do we move? Neural Control of Movement ............................................................................... 41
Involved structures in the neural motor control system and their functions regarding movements ............... 41
Cortical structures ...................................................................................................................................... 42
the key elements of the neural motor control system and how are they interconnected and hierarchically
organized? ................................................................................................................................................. 45
Elements of reflexive (orange) and intentional (yellow) feedback and their neural organization? ................. 46
Diseases regarding neural control ............................................................................................................... 47
Case 8: how do we move ................................................................................................................................ 51
The macroscopic anatomy of a muscle ........................................................................................................ 51
The anatomy of a basic contractile unit of a muscle .................................................................................... 52
How the muscle is activated (Neuromuscular transmission) ........................................................................ 54
Contraction or excitation of the neuromuscular transmission ...................................................................... 54
Does it matter which type of muscle fiber is activated ................................................................................. 57
Difference between the physiological direct recruitment of motor units ...................................................... 57
Case 9: how do we vary our muscle output .................................................................................................... 59
Muscle work (loop) ..................................................................................................................................... 59
The relation between muscles and torque ................................................................................................... 59
Muscle recruitment .................................................................................................................................... 60
Force-length relationship ............................................................................................................................ 60
Force-velocity relationship .......................................................................................................................... 61
Muscle architecture .................................................................................................................................... 62
Case 10: How do we move ............................................................................................................................. 63
How does EMG work and what does it represent ........................................................................................ 63
How is the process from AP (motor unit) to EMG going ............................................................................... 64
How to measure and process the signals to EMGs tracings.......................................................................... 66
What are the different EMG processing patterns ........................................................................................ 69
What is the relationship between acceleration and force ............................................................................ 71
Angular acceleration patterns from joint-angle patterns ............................................................................. 71
Case 11: in touch with pain ............................................................................................................................ 72
The different kinds of physical pain ............................................................................................................. 72
The different pain receptors........................................................................................................................ 72
Nociceptive pain ......................................................................................................................................... 74
Neuropathic pain........................................................................................................................................ 75
The different laminae of the dorsal horn ..................................................................................................... 77
Pain pathways............................................................................................................................................ 78
Case 12: How do we learn and memorize ....................................................................................................... 81
Different types of memory .......................................................................................................................... 81
, Long-term potentiation .............................................................................................................................. 82
Long-term depression ................................................................................................................................. 84
Link between stress and memory ................................................................................................................ 85
Case 13: how do we perceive stress ............................................................................................................... 86
Physiological response towards a stressor................................................................................................... 86
Fear, stress, and anxiety ............................................................................................................................. 88
The control of the expression of stress, fear and anxiety.............................................................................. 89
The Papez circuit ................................................................................................................................... 89
, Case 1 (How is the brain organized? The start of new insights)
Overall organization
The nervous system is subdivided in the CNS and PNS. The PNS consists of the autonomic
(afferent and (efferent nerves sympathetic and parasympathetic)) and somatic division
(afferent and efferent nerves).
The CNS consists of the brain (cerebrum, brain stem and cerebellum) and the spinal cord.
Brain is divided in ventricles:
Forebrain (prosencephalon) – telencephalon and diencephalon
Midbrain (mesencephalon)
Hindbrain (rhombencephalon) – metencephalon and myelencephalon
Central nervous system
1. Cerebral hemispheres + associated subcortical structures (telencephalon)
2. Diencephalon
3. Mesencephalon
4. Pons (part of metencephalon) brainstem
5. Medulla oblongata (part of the myelencephalon)
6. Cerebellum
7. Spinal cord
The spinal cord passes information between the CNS and the PNS. The spinal cord consists of
30 spinal segments (8 cervical, 12 thoracal, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral)
Protective layers of the brain
Meninges: cerebral membranes that separate the brain from
the skull (dura mater, arachnoid layer and Pia Mater)
- Dura Mater: most outer layer and is tough and inflexible
- Arachnoid membrane: middle layer and has a spider
web like structure
- Subarachnoid space
- Pia mater: most inner layer that contains blood vessels
Brain
Your brain can be divided in three parts: the forebrain,
the midbrain and the hindbrain. The forebrain is
responsible for voluntary actions and the
midbrain/hindbrain are responsible for involuntary
actions.
Forebrain: The forebrain consists of the cerebrum,
thalamus, hypothalamus, and the pituitary gland. The
forebrain plays an important role in thinking, sensing,
emotions and memory.
Midbrain: The midbrain is associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake,
arousal (alertness), and temperature regulation, acting as a sort of relay station for auditory
and visual information.
