Research methods
All of research methods can be asked in the exam so learn the whole thing.
• Experimental method. Types of experiment, laboratory and field experiments; natural and quasi-
experiments.
• Observational techniques. Types of observation: naturalistic and controlled observation; covert and
overt observation; participant and non-participant observation.
• Self-report techniques. Questionnaires; interviews, structured and unstructured.
• Correlations. Analysis of the relationship between co-variables. The difference between correlations
and experiments.
• Content analysis.
• Case studies.
Types of validity?
Internal validity - attributed to the effect of the independent variable; experiment is internally valid when
the findings have not been affected by confounding variables
External validity – findings can be generalised to other settings, populations and times
Ecological validity - the extent to which the findings can be generalized to a real-life setting.
,Type of experiment and Strengths Limitations
definition
Laboratory - variables are High experimental control, less Lack external validity
controlled and manipulated by likelihood of extraneous variables
the researcher. à high internal validity Demand characteristics
Controlled setting Artificial setting à lack ecological
validity
Researcher can randomly allocate
to conditions. Unable to generalise to real life
settings
Participants aware.
Field - variables are controlled High ecological validity – Research more difficult to
and manipulated by the representative of everyday replicate
researcher. behaviour
Difficult to control extraneous
Natural setting e.g. on the street
Less demand characteristics as variables à reduces internal
or in a park. people are more likely to act validity
naturally in a natural
Researcher can randomly allocate environment Ethical issues - no informed
to conditions. consent as participants unaware
Requires less time to prepare
Participants not aware. than a lab.
Natural - IV is natural occurring, High external validity Little experimental control as
not manipulated by researcher variables is not manipulated by
High ecological validity – insights the researcher, no control over
Random allocation is not gained into real-life situations extraneous variables
possible.
Often likely yields data which is Often limited participants due to
Can be natural / artificial setting an accurate representation of the nature of the research
behaviour. à behaviours seen are not
generalisable.
Quasi - IV is pre-existing / Able to compare different types No control over extraneous
naturally occurring e.g. gender, of people easily which could not variables
age be ethically generated otherwise
Participants cannot be randomly
Usually natural setting allocated into research conditions
to remove bias in the procedure
Random allocation is not
possible.
, Observations
Type and definition Strengths Limitations
Controlled High control of extraneous Low external validity
Lab setting, strict conditions variables
Extraneous variables e.g. Participants may change their
temperature can be controlled Can be replicated to check for behaviour – demand
reliability characteristics
Naturalistic High ecological validity – records Difficult to replicate same
Unaltered setting naturally occurring behaviour conditions as occurring naturally
Observer does not interfere in à representative of everyday
any way activities / spontaneous actions Unable to use test-retest method
to check reliability
Overt More ethical – aware; informed Investigator effects – investigator
‘Open’ observations; participants consent influences the behaviour of
aware that they are being participants in a way which was
observed not intended
à Demand characteristics; lower
internal validity
Covert Investigator effects less likely to Ethical issues – cannot give
‘undisclosed’ observation; impact results informed consent / exercise their
participants not aware that they right to withdraw
are being observed No demand characteristics as
participants unaware
Participant Obtain in-depth data; avoid Investigator effects – presence of
Investigator also takes part in the overlooking any behaviour an investigator within the group
activity being observed external observer would’ve might influence participants’
Can be overt or covert missed behaviour
à Comprehensive understanding à Demand characteristics
Non-participant Investigator effects less likely to
Investigator does not participate impact results; unobtrusive
in the activity being observed à Representative of natural and
unaltered behaviour
Time sampling –
• Observer records the behaviour at set time intervals, e.g. every 10 seconds
• At the specified time intervals, tick/mark one or more categories from the behavioural checklist
according to the behaviour exhibited by the observed person / group [give examples]
• Behaviours observed in between the time sampling frames should be ignored and should not be
recorded [give examples]
All of research methods can be asked in the exam so learn the whole thing.
• Experimental method. Types of experiment, laboratory and field experiments; natural and quasi-
experiments.
• Observational techniques. Types of observation: naturalistic and controlled observation; covert and
overt observation; participant and non-participant observation.
• Self-report techniques. Questionnaires; interviews, structured and unstructured.
• Correlations. Analysis of the relationship between co-variables. The difference between correlations
and experiments.
• Content analysis.
• Case studies.
Types of validity?
Internal validity - attributed to the effect of the independent variable; experiment is internally valid when
the findings have not been affected by confounding variables
External validity – findings can be generalised to other settings, populations and times
Ecological validity - the extent to which the findings can be generalized to a real-life setting.
,Type of experiment and Strengths Limitations
definition
Laboratory - variables are High experimental control, less Lack external validity
controlled and manipulated by likelihood of extraneous variables
the researcher. à high internal validity Demand characteristics
Controlled setting Artificial setting à lack ecological
validity
Researcher can randomly allocate
to conditions. Unable to generalise to real life
settings
Participants aware.
Field - variables are controlled High ecological validity – Research more difficult to
and manipulated by the representative of everyday replicate
researcher. behaviour
Difficult to control extraneous
Natural setting e.g. on the street
Less demand characteristics as variables à reduces internal
or in a park. people are more likely to act validity
naturally in a natural
Researcher can randomly allocate environment Ethical issues - no informed
to conditions. consent as participants unaware
Requires less time to prepare
Participants not aware. than a lab.
Natural - IV is natural occurring, High external validity Little experimental control as
not manipulated by researcher variables is not manipulated by
High ecological validity – insights the researcher, no control over
Random allocation is not gained into real-life situations extraneous variables
possible.
Often likely yields data which is Often limited participants due to
Can be natural / artificial setting an accurate representation of the nature of the research
behaviour. à behaviours seen are not
generalisable.
Quasi - IV is pre-existing / Able to compare different types No control over extraneous
naturally occurring e.g. gender, of people easily which could not variables
age be ethically generated otherwise
Participants cannot be randomly
Usually natural setting allocated into research conditions
to remove bias in the procedure
Random allocation is not
possible.
, Observations
Type and definition Strengths Limitations
Controlled High control of extraneous Low external validity
Lab setting, strict conditions variables
Extraneous variables e.g. Participants may change their
temperature can be controlled Can be replicated to check for behaviour – demand
reliability characteristics
Naturalistic High ecological validity – records Difficult to replicate same
Unaltered setting naturally occurring behaviour conditions as occurring naturally
Observer does not interfere in à representative of everyday
any way activities / spontaneous actions Unable to use test-retest method
to check reliability
Overt More ethical – aware; informed Investigator effects – investigator
‘Open’ observations; participants consent influences the behaviour of
aware that they are being participants in a way which was
observed not intended
à Demand characteristics; lower
internal validity
Covert Investigator effects less likely to Ethical issues – cannot give
‘undisclosed’ observation; impact results informed consent / exercise their
participants not aware that they right to withdraw
are being observed No demand characteristics as
participants unaware
Participant Obtain in-depth data; avoid Investigator effects – presence of
Investigator also takes part in the overlooking any behaviour an investigator within the group
activity being observed external observer would’ve might influence participants’
Can be overt or covert missed behaviour
à Comprehensive understanding à Demand characteristics
Non-participant Investigator effects less likely to
Investigator does not participate impact results; unobtrusive
in the activity being observed à Representative of natural and
unaltered behaviour
Time sampling –
• Observer records the behaviour at set time intervals, e.g. every 10 seconds
• At the specified time intervals, tick/mark one or more categories from the behavioural checklist
according to the behaviour exhibited by the observed person / group [give examples]
• Behaviours observed in between the time sampling frames should be ignored and should not be
recorded [give examples]
