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Summary Sociological Theory | University of Antwerp | 2026/27

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Summary of all the lectures of Sociological Theory given by, Gert Verschraegen. I only studied my summary and had a 15/20.

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lecture 1

1. What is theory?

Theory can mean:

●​ explanation of a phenomenon
●​ logically connected set of ideas
●​ conceptual system organizing reality

Theory helps explain and structure the social world.

Theory is:

●​ abstract → generalizes from cases
●​ socially and historically situated

Theories shape how researchers observe and interpret reality.

Merton on theory

Robert Merton:

“theory” is used for many different things, from small hypotheses to large systems of thought.

Because of this, the concept can become vague.

Theory and empirical reality

Scientific theories contain:

●​ empirical observations
●​ presuppositions and assumptions

Theories are connected to social reality, but also shape how reality is studied.




2. Why is theory important?

Theory important for:

●​ heuristics
●​ framing
●​ explanation
●​ systematisation

,3. Heuristics

Theory provides:

●​ concepts
●​ analytic frames
●​ ways of seeing reality

Theory helps determine:

●​ what is relevant
●​ what is irrelevant

Without theoretical concepts, observation becomes difficult.




4. Framing

Researchers use theoretical perspectives to classify and interpret phenomena.

Different frames produce different understandings.

Example: riots

Riots can be understood as:

Crisis behaviour

●​ frustration
●​ deprivation
●​ reaction to social change

Rational action

●​ strategic violence used to achieve goals

Culture of violence

●​ learned violent norms and values

Each perspective:

●​ focuses on different causes
●​ uses different concepts
●​ requires different research methods

Research requires systematic reflection on available theoretical frames.

,5. Explanation

Theory helps explain why social phenomena happen.

Researchers test different hypotheses.

Example: non-take-up of social benefits

Possible explanations:

●​ lack of information
●​ no need for benefits
●​ fear of stigma
●​ expectation of finding work soon
●​ administrative complexity

Each hypothesis produces testable implications.

Hypotheses can be rejected if observations contradict them.

6. Systematisation

Theory organizes empirical knowledge.

Theory acts as:

●​ lens
●​ perspective
●​ framework for categorizing reality

Example:​
responses to discrimination.

Lamont et al. identify strategies such as:

●​ confrontation
●​ adaptation/self-management
●​ silence
●​ strong work ethic
●​ isolation/autonomy

7. How are theories produced?

Induction

-​ Induction: generalizing from observations
-​ Problem of induction: many observations can never fully prove a universal truth.
-​ Example → many white swans do not prove all swans are white.

Theory and assumptions

, Theories are not only based on empirical data.

They are also shaped by:

●​ assumptions
●​ expectations
●​ prior ideas

Theory develops through interaction between:

●​ empirical reality
●​ non-empirical ideas




8. Theoretical pluralism

Sociology contains many different theories because theories rely on different assumptions.

Epistemological debates

Questions about knowledge:

●​ how can reliable knowledge be produced?
●​ which methods are valid?
●​ what counts as scientific knowledge?

Ontological debates

Questions about reality:

●​ what is social reality made of?
●​ individuals or structures?
●​ objective reality or constructed meanings?




9. Core sociological questions

Human action

Different theories explain action differently.

Rational action

●​ self-interest
●​ utility maximization

Normative action

Table of contents

  1. 01 1. What is theory? 1
    1. Merton on theory 1
    2. Theory and empirical reality 1
  2. 02 2. Why is theory important? 1
  3. 03 3. Heuristics 2
  4. 04 4. Framing 2
    1. Example: riots 2
    2. Crisis behaviour 2
    3. Rational action 2
    4. Culture of violence 2
  5. 05 5. Explanation 3
    1. Example: non-take-up of social benefits 3
  6. 06 6. Systematisation 3
  7. 07 7. How are theories produced? 3
    1. Induction 3
    2. Theory and assumptions 3
  8. 08 8. Theoretical pluralism 4
    1. Epistemological debates 4
    2. Ontological debates 4
  9. 09 9. Core sociological questions 4
    1. Human action 4
    2. Structure vs agency 5
  10. 10 lecture 2: social interactionism 6
  11. 11 1. Micro-sociology 6
  12. 12 2. Theories of social action 6
    1. Interpretivist theories 6
    2. Utilitarian theories 6
  13. 13 3. Interpretivist theory 7
  14. 14 4. Max Weber 7
    1. Social action 7
    2. -​Types of understanding 7
    3. Four ideal types of action 7
    4. Ideal types 8
  15. 15 5. Chicago School 8
  16. 16 6. Thomas theorem 9
  17. 17 7. George Herbert Mead 9
    1. Interaction 10
    2. Self-consciousness 10
    3. Taking the role of the other 10
    4. Play and game 10
    5. Social action as symbolic 10
  18. 18 8. Symbolic interactionism (Blumer) 11
    1. Three premises 11
  19. 19 9. Symbolic vs non-symbolic interaction 11
    1. Non-symbolic interaction 11
    2. Symbolic interaction 11
  20. 20 10. Definition of the situation 12
  21. 21 11. Joint action 12
  22. 22 12. Self as process 12
  23. 23 13. Negotiated order (Strauss) 12
  24. 24 14. Awareness contexts of dying (Glaser & Strauss) 13
    1. -​Closed awareness 13
    2. -​Suspicious awareness 13
    3. -​Mutual pretense 13
    4. -​Open awareness 13
  25. 25 15. Criticism of symbolic interactionism 14
  26. 26 16. Labeling theory (Becker) 14
  27. 27 Lecture 3 : Dramaturgy, Interaction Rituals & Ethnomethodology 15
    1. 1. Dramaturgical sociology 15
    2. 2. Impression management 15
    3. 3. Frontstage and backstage 15
    4. 4. Performance elements 16
    5. 5. Interaction order 16
    6. 6. Face-work 16
    7. 7. Interaction rituals 17
    8. 8. Civil inattention 17
    9. 9. Types of interaction situations 17
    10. 10. Total institutions 18
    11. 11. Randall Collins – interaction ritual theory 19
    12. 12. Interaction rituals 19
    13. 13. Emotional energy 19
    14. 14. Strong vs weak rituals 19
    15. 15. Sociology of emotions (Hochschild) 20
    16. 16. Sociology of violence (Collins) 20
    17. 17. Code of the street (Elijah Anderson) 21
    18. 18. Social stratification in interaction 21
    19. 19. Hiring as cultural matching (Lauren Rivera) 21
    20. 20. Ethnomethodology (Garfinkel) 22
    21. 21. Ethnomethods 22
    22. 22. Breaching experiments 22
    23. 23. Accountability 22
    24. 24. Indexicality 22
    25. 25. Reflexivity 23
    26. 26. Documentary interpretation 23
    27. 27. Et cetera principle 23
    28. 28. Conversation analysis 23
    29. 1. Focus of lecture 4 24
    30. 2. Model of rational action (homo economicus) 24
    31. 3. Historical background 25
    32. 4. Rational action theory 25
  28. 28 SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY 26
    1. 5. Homans 26
    2. 6. Blau 26
  29. 29 RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY (RCT) 27
    1. 7. Core assumptions 27
    2. 8. Preferences and decision-making 28
    3. 9. Dealing with uncertainty 28
    4. 10. Types of choices 29
  30. 30 APPLICATIONS OF RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY 29
    1. 11. Voting behaviour (Downs) 29
    2. 12. Altruism and gifts 29
  31. 31 RELIGION 30
    1. 13. Religion as market 30
    2. 14. Religious market theory 30
  32. 32 GAME THEORY 31
    1. 15. Game theory 31
    2. 16. Types of games 31
    3. 17. Prisoner’s dilemma 32
  33. 33 COLLECTIVE ACTION PROBLEMS 33
    1. 18. Collective action problems 33
    2. 19. Tragedy of the commons 33
    3. 20. Mancur Olson 33
    4. 21. Solving collective action problems 34
    5. 22. Social dilemmas 34
  34. 34 CRITICISM OF RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY 35
    1. 23. Simplification 35
    2. 24. Overestimation of rationality 35
    3. 25. Preferences not fixed 35
    4. 26. Neglect of norms and institutions 35
  35. 35 THE MICRO–MACRO PROBLEM 36
    1. 2. Micro-sociology 36
    2. 3. Macro-sociology 36
    3. 4. Micro and macro as relative categories 37
  36. 36 STRUCTURE – AGENCY 37
    1. 5. Structure vs agency 37
    2. 6. Structure and agency across levels 38
    3. 7. Attempts to transcend the dichotomy 38
    4. 8. Bourdieu – habitus 39
  37. 37 MESO-LEVEL ANALYSIS 39
    1. 9. Meso-level analysis 39
  38. 38 GROUPS 39
    1. 10. Groups 39
    2. 11. Functions of groups 40
    3. 12. Stability of groups 41
  39. 39 NETWORKS 41
    1. 13. Networks 41
    2. 14. Strong and weak ties 41
    3. 15. Network effects on behaviour 42
  40. 40 ORGANISATIONS 43
    1. 16. Organisational society 43
    2. 17. Organisations and social life 43
    3. 18. Organisations structure life 44
    4. 19. Exclusion from organisations 44
  41. 41 DEFINING ORGANISATIONS 44
    1. 20. Organisations as social entities 44
    2. 21. Membership 45
    3. 22. Goals 45
    4. 23. Hierarchies 46
    5. 24. Decision-making autonomy 46
  42. 42 INSTRUMENTAL-RATIONAL MODEL 46
    1. 25. From goals to hierarchies to members 46
    2. 26. Limits of instrumental-rational approach 47
  43. 43 MEMBERSHIP AND CONFORMITY 47
    1. 27. Membership and conformity 47
    2. 28. Effect of conformity 47
  44. 44 HOW ORGANISATIONS MOTIVATE MEMBERS 48
    1. 29. Main mechanisms 48
    2. 30. Police Battalion 101 48
    3. 31. Five organisational mechanisms 49
  45. 45 INFORMAL ORGANISATION 49
    1. 32. Underlife of organisations 49
    2. 1. Macro-sociology 50
    3. 2. Durkheim 50
  46. 46 ORGANICISM & FUNCTIONALISM 51
    1. 3. Organicism 51
  47. 47 FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS 51
    1. 4. Functionalist questions 51
    2. 5. Durkheim – religion 51
    3. 6. Collective effervescence 52
  48. 48 STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM 53
    1. 7. British structural-functionalism 53
    2. 8. Function 53
  49. 49 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION 54
    1. 9. Davis & Moore – social stratification 54
    2. 10. Differential rewards 54
    3. 11. Criticism of Davis & Moore 55
  50. 50 TALCOTT PARSONS 55
    1. 12. Talcott Parsons 55
    2. 13. Parsons’ conception of theory 56
  51. 51 THEORY OF SOCIAL ACTION 56
    1. 14. The Structure of Social Action (1937) 56
    2. 15. Unit act 57
    3. 16. Homo sociologicus 57
  52. 52 PARSONS AS SYSTEMS THEORIST 58
    1. 17. Systems theory 58
    2. 18. Socialization and personality 58
    3. 19. Social system 58
  53. 53 NORMATIVE INTEGRATION 59
    1. 20. Normative integration 59
    2. 21. Social order 60
  54. 54 SOCIAL CONTROL & SOCIALIZATION 60
    1. 22. Social control 60
    2. 23. Socialization 60
  55. 55 SOCIAL CHANGE 61
    1. 24. Mechanical and organic solidarity 61
    2. 25. Functional differentiation 61
    3. 26. Value generalization 62
    4. 27. Moral individualism 62
    5. 28. Bellah – civil religion 62
  56. 56 PATTERN VARIABLES 63
    1. 29. Pattern alternatives 63
    2. 30. Pattern variables and societies 63
  57. 57 2. Parsons’ theory of health and illness (1) 64
    1. Main idea 64
    2. Illness as deviance 64
    3. Five characteristics of the sick role: 64
    4. -​Rights 64
  58. 58 4. Physician role 65
    1. Collective orientation 65
    2. Universalistic and specific knowledge 65
    3. Affective neutrality 65
  59. 59 5. Parsons’ systems theory: AGIL scheme 65
    1. Main idea 65
    2. System 65
    3. Subsystem 65
    4. AGIL scheme 66
  60. 60 6. AGIL scheme 66
    1. Adaptation (A) 66
    2. Goal attainment (G) 66
    3. Integration (I) 66
    4. Latency / Pattern maintenance (L) 66
  61. 61 7. AGIL scheme: structure of action system 67
    1. -​Behavioral system 67
    2. -​Social system 67
    3. -​Cultural system 67
  62. 62 8. AGIL scheme: social system 67
    1. -​Economy→ Performs: adaptation 67
    2. -​Politics→ Performs: goal attainment 67
    3. -​Societal community→ Performs: integration 67
    4. -​Fiduciary system→ Performs: latency / pattern maintenance 67
  63. 63 9. Example: European Union as integrated social system 68
    1. -​Economic integration 68
    2. -​Political integration 68
    3. -​Cultural individuality 68
    4. -​Social cohesion 68
  64. 64 10. Criticism of functionalism 68
    1. Mechanical and simplifying 68
    2. Static 68
    3. Outdated assumptions 69
    4. Too much focus on consensus 69
    5. Teleological critique 69
  65. 65 11. Renewed focus on societal conflict 69
    1. Functionalist view 69
    2. Critique 69
    3. Conflict sociology 70
    4. Main question 70
  66. 66 12. Lewis Coser / Georg Simmel: positive functions of conflict 70
    1. Main idea 70
    2. Positive functions of conflict: 71
  67. 67 13. Group level: integrating effects of conflict 71
    1. Intimate relationships 71
    2. Group-binding effect 71
  68. 68 14. Conflict as “safety-valve” 72
    1. Stable relationships 72
    2. Withdrawal 72
    3. Safety-valve institutions 72
  69. 69 15. Macro-level: conflict and democracy 72
    1. External conflict 72
    2. Democratic peace 72
    3. Multiplicity of conflicts 72
  70. 70 16. Robert Merton’s critique of functionalism 73
    1. Main idea 73
    2. Critique of functional unity 73
    3. Critique of universal functionalism 73
    4. Critique of indispensability 73
    5. Middle-range theories 74
  71. 71 17. Niklas Luhmann 74
    1. Background 74
    2. Three focal points 74
  72. 72 18. Luhmann’s theory: introduction 74
    1. Main ambition 74
    2. Characteristics 75
    3. A-humanistic 75
    4. Central idea 75
  73. 73 19. Important differences with Parsons 75
    1. Functional-structural approach 75
    2. Functional differentiation 75
    3. Integration 76
    4. Communication systems 76
  74. 74 20. General systems theory 76
    1. System 76
    2. Complexity reduction 76
    3. Types of systems 77
    4. Contingency 77
  75. 75 21. Social systems as communication systems 77
    1. Main idea 77
    2. Temporalized complexity 77
    3. Autopoiesis 77
    4. Operative closure 78
    5. Self-referentiality 78
  76. 76 22. Luhmann’s concept of communication 78
    1. Communication ≠ conveying message 78
    2. Characteristics 78
    3. Three selections 78
    4. Meaning 79
    5. Abstract communication 79
  77. 77 23. Communication as synthesis of three selections 79
  78. 78 24. Relation between psychic and social systems 79
    1. Communication as emergent phenomenon 79
    2. Famous statement 79
    3. Operative closure 79
    4. Structural coupling 80
    5. Language 80
  79. 79 25. Types of social systems 80
    1. Interaction systems 80
    2. Organisations 80
    3. Society 81
  80. 80 26. Types of social differentiation 81
    1. 1.​Segmentary differentiation 81
    2. 2.​Hierarchical differentiation / stratification 81
    3. 3.​Functional differentiation 82
  81. 81 27. Three types of society 82
    1. Small oral societies 82
    2. Regional civilizations 82
    3. Modern world society 83
  82. 82 28. Functional differentiation 83
    1. -​Heterarchical structure 83
    2. -​Function systems 83
    3. -​Dependence 83
    4. -​Function / performance / reflection 83
    5. Structural couplings 84
    6. Professional and public roles 84
    7. Exclusion and partial inclusion 84
  83. 83 29. Example: economy 84
    1. Differentiation 84
    2. Corporate ownership 85
    3. Economy in singular 85
    4. Money economy 85
    5. Public roles 85
    6. Binary code 85
  84. 84 30. Functional differentiation and coding 86
    1. Totalizing and selective 86
    2. Binary coding 86
    3. Operational closure 86
    4. Programs 86
  85. 85 31. Luhmann’s diagnosis of world society 86
    1. Polycentrism / polycontextuality 86
    2. No overarching consensus 87
    3. Multiplication of society 87
    4. Interdependence without control 87
    5. Organized irresponsibility 87
    6. Mutual blindness 87
    7. Background 88
    8. Career 88
    9. Friedrich Engels 88
  86. 86 3. Marx and practice 89
    1. Second thesis on Feuerbach 89
    2. Main idea 89
  87. 87 4. Materialist philosophy 89
    1. Historical materialism 89
    2. → Two dimensions: 89
    3. Anti-dualist 90
    4. Famous quote 90
  88. 88 5. Importance of work 90
    1. Humans as productive beings 90
    2. Difference between humans and animals 90
    3. Work as natural necessity 91
    4. Self-realization through labor 91
  89. 89 6. Historical materialism 91
    1. Starting point of history 91
  90. 90 7. Forces of production 91
    1. Definition 91
    2. Development 92
  91. 91 8. Relations of production 92
    1. Definition 92
    2. Important note 92
    3. Crucial relationship 92
  92. 92 9. Human nature and social relations 93
    1. Famous statement 93
    2. Main idea 93
    3. Species-being (Gattungswesen) 93
  93. 93 10. Historical materialism and modes of production 93
    1. Development of productive forces 93
    2. Division of labor 93
    3. Mode of production 94
  94. 94 11. Feudal mode of production 94
    1. Characteristics 94
    2. Peasants 94
  95. 95 12. Capitalist mode of production 94
    1. Main characteristic 94
    2. Capitalists 95
    3. Workers 95
  96. 96 13. Base and superstructure 95
    1. Main idea 95
    2. Base 95
    3. Superstructure 95
    4. Relationship 96
  97. 97 14. The state 96
    1. Communist Manifesto 96
    2. Main idea 96
    3. Methods 96
  98. 98 15. Work and alienation 97
    1. Main idea 97
    2. Capitalism 97
    3. Commodities 97
  99. 99 16. Four aspects of alienation 97
    1. 1. Product alienation 97
    2. 2. Self-alienation 98
    3. 3. Species alienation 98
    4. 4. Social alienation 98
  100. 100 18. Marx’ theory of class 98
    1. Main idea 98
    2. Importance of class 99
  101. 101 19. Class and production 99
    1. Main question 99
    2. Key distinction 99
    3. Important note 99
  102. 102 20. Two-class model 99
    1. Bourgeoisie 99
    2. Proletariat 99
    3. Communist Manifesto 100
    4. Transitional groups 100
  103. 103 21. Class in itself vs class for itself 100
    1. Class in itself 100
    2. Class for itself 100
    3. Problem 100
  104. 104 22. Why class consciousness is difficult 101
    1. Surplus value hidden 101
    2. Competition between workers 101
    3. Fractionalization 101
    4. Bourgeoisization 101
  105. 105 23. Post-Marxian theories of class 101
    1. Main idea 101
    2. Three approaches 101
  106. 106 24. Class-blending approaches 102
    1. Financialized capitalism 102
    2. Worker-capitalists 102
    3. Important note 102
  107. 107 25. Class-differentiation approaches 102
    1. Intermediate classes 102
    2. Examples 102
    3. Internal differentiation 103
  108. 108 26. Class-culture approach 103
    1. Main critique 103
    2. Interpretive patterns 103
  109. 109 27. Cultural class conflicts 103
    1. Main idea 103
  110. 110 28. Weber: class situation vs status situation 104
    1. -​Class situation 104
    2. -​Status situation 104
  111. 111 29. Social status 104
    1. Lifestyle 104
    2. Monopolization 104
    3. Difference with class 104
  112. 112 30. Cultural class analysis 104
    1. Main idea 105
    2. Intersections 105
  113. 113 31. Status-based socialization 105
    1. Main idea 105
    2. Parents 105
  114. 114 32. Self-direction vs conformity 105
    1. Privileged status cultures 105
    2. Manual/routine occupations 106
  115. 115 33. Differential ability to navigate institutions 106
    1. Main idea 106
    2. Advantage 106
  116. 116 34. Annette Lareau: child-rearing styles 106
    1. → Concerted cultivation 106
    2. → Accomplishment of natural growth 107
  117. 117 1. Ambiguity of capitalism 108
  118. 118 2. Origin of the term capitalism 108
  119. 119 3. Emergence of capitalist society 108
    1. Commodification 109
  120. 120 4. Definition of capitalist society 109
  121. 121 5. Marx and capitalism 109
  122. 122 6. Criticism of Marx 110
  123. 123 7. Weber and capitalism 110
  124. 124 8. Weber: capitalist enterprise 110
  125. 125 9. Spirit of capitalism 111
  126. 126 10. Calvinism and capitalism 111
  127. 127 11. Schumpeter 112
  128. 128 12. Karl Polanyi 112
  129. 129 13. Double movement 112
    1. First movement 113
    2. Countermovement 113
  130. 130 14. Capitalism as historical system 113
  131. 131 15. Historical forms of capitalism 113
  132. 132 16. Embedded liberalism 113
    1. Bretton Woods 114
    2. Keynesianism 114
    3. Les Trentes Glorieuses (1945–1973) 114
  133. 133 17. Rise of neo-liberalism 114
  134. 134 18. Frankfurt School / Critical Theory 114
  135. 135 19. Traditional vs Critical Theory 115
    1. Normative claim 115
    2. Emancipatory claim 115
    3. Self-reflective claim 115
  136. 136 20. Habermas: knowledge and interests 116
    1. -​Technical interest 116
    2. -​Practical interest 116
    3. -​Emancipatory interest 116
  137. 137 21. Crisis of Marxism 116
  138. 138 22. Dialectic of Enlightenment 116
  139. 139 23. Authoritarian personality 117
  140. 140 24. Culture industry 117
  141. 141 25. Foucault 117
  142. 142 26. Discipline and punishment 118
  143. 143 27. Panopticon 118
  144. 144 28. Neo-liberalism (Foucault) 118
  145. 145 29. Neo-liberal self 119
  146. 146 30. Biopower and biopolitics 119
  147. 147 31. Quantified self 120
  148. 148 32. Platform capitalism 120
  149. 149 33. Surveillance capitalism 120
  150. 150 34. Coding elite 121
  151. 151 35. Internet of Things (IoT) 121
  152. 152 2. Identity and difference 122
    1. Identity 122
    2. Identity requires difference 122
    3. Symbolic boundaries 122
  153. 153 3. Social development of personal identity 123
    1. First process: identification 123
    2. Lacan and mirroring 123
    3. Second process: separation 123
  154. 154 4. Identity development 123
    1. Around age three 124
    2. Later development 124
  155. 155 5. Social identities and symbolic boundary work 124
    1. Symbolic boundary work 124
    2. Criteria for boundary work 124
    3. Main idea 124
  156. 156 6. Symbolic boundary making 125
    1. Identities must be enacted 125
  157. 157 7. Gender as performative 125
    1. Main idea 125
    2. Embodiment 125
  158. 158 8. Manipulability of gender 126
    1. Limits of manipulation 126
  159. 159 GLOBALIZATION: BACKGROUND 126
    1. 1. Globalization as “diagnosis of the times” 127
    2. 2. Theories of globalization 127
  160. 160 THEORIES OF SPACE, PLACE AND GLOBALIZATION 128
    1. 3. Reconfiguring time and space 128
    2. 4. Anthony Giddens – time-space distanciation 128
    3. 5. David Harvey – time-space compression 128
  161. 161 SOCIAL RELATIONS AS NETWORKS 129
    1. 6. Networks 129
    2. 7. Interaction networks 129
    3. 8. Characteristics of networks 129
    4. 9. KOF Globalisation Index 130
  162. 162 GLOBAL CITIES 130
    1. 10. Saskia Sassen – global cities 130
    2. 11. Glocalization 130
    3. 12. Ronald Robertson 131
    4. 13. Cultural hybridity 131
    5. 14. Syncretism 131
  163. 163 A SHORT HISTORY OF GLOBALIZATION 131
    1. 15. When does globalization begin? 131
  164. 164 GLOBAL NETWORKING UNTIL 1750 132
    1. 16. Long-distance trade 132
    2. 17. Empires 132
    3. 18. Religious ecumene 132
    4. 19. Holes in the network 133
  165. 165 FIRST GLOBALIZATION (1750–1890) 133
    1. 20. Global transport system 133
    2. 21. Integrated world economy 134
    3. 22. World culture 134
    4. 23. Global standardization 134
  166. 166 SECOND & THIRD WAVE OF GLOBALIZATION 134
    1. 24. Post-war globalization 134
    2. 25. Global consciousness 135
    3. 26. Global network society 135
  167. 167 METHODOLOGICAL NATIONALISM 135
    1. 27. Methodological nationalism 135
    2. 28. Criticism of methodological nationalism 136
  168. 168 TRANSNATIONALISM 136
    1. 29. Transnationalism 136
    2. 30. Migration and transnationalism 136
    3. 31. Transnational perspective 136
    4. 32. De-territorialisation 137
    5. 33. Paul Gilroy – Black Atlantic 137
  169. 169 CAPITALIST THEORIES OF GLOBALIZATION 137
    1. 34. Immanuel Wallerstein – world-system theory 138
    2. 35. International division of labour 138
    3. 36. Colonial capitalism 138
    4. 37. Mintz – global sugar economy 138
  170. 170 THEORIES OF GLOBAL CAPITALISM 139
    1. 38. Global capitalism 139
    2. 39. Transnational political apparatus 139
    3. 40. Transnational class formation 139
  171. 171 MANUEL CASTELLS 140
    1. 41. Global network society 140
    2. 42. Networked enterprise 140
    3. 43. Space of flows 140
    4. 44. Space of places 141

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