CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY AN APPLIED
PERSPECTIVE COMPREHENSIVE
EXAMINATION TEST COMPLETE
QUESTIONS AND CORRECT ANSWERS
●● What do Applied Anthropologists do?
Answer: Applied anthropology must, of course, be based on pure
anthropology. What is therefore necessary in the first place is the
development of the pure science by the discovery or formulation of the
fundamental principles of social integration. - Anthropologists test
theories then put them into practice
●● Linear Theory
Answer: It was Foster (1969) who initially developed the notion of a
two-way interaction between theory and application, in his critique of
the linear theory of practice. Based on the writing of Leighton (1946),
Fosters work argued that anthropology was not like physics; that is, our
discipline is not sufficiently developed as a science to enable theorists to
"hand off" exact formulations or lawlike generalizations to a class of
technicians (i.e., the "engineering model"). Rather, practitioners need to
be trained to manipulate the same basic concepts and methods as
theorists, and their intellectual work is much the same as that of
theorists: it is creative, discovery oriented, and capable of knowledge
generation
,●● Feedback
Answer: This view was called the "clinical" model, based upon the two-
way interactions between theory and practice in clinical sciences such as
medicine and psychology. Foster envisioned many benefits that could be
derived from a feedback theory of practice: it offered opportunities for
research experience that were not readily available to traditional
theorists, it imported research questions from other intellectual domains,
it broadened the range of topics studied, and it created pressure to
improve research methods. The broader the range of social systems
examined by anthropologists, the more robust our theories would
become.
●● Policy
Answer: In other words, application should inform and improve policy.
applied anthropology as a policy science, that is, a distinct domain of
inquiry and generalizable knowledge that pertains to the formulation and
implementation of governing principles in formal policy-making
contexts. The notion of a special body of theory that fills the gap
between anthropological knowledge, on the one hand, and utilization of
that knowledge, on the other, is a distinctive conceptualization of theory.
This second point of view, sometimes referred to as policy research, is
defined by Rylko-Bauer et al. as "the process by which objective,
representative information is collected, analyzed and communicated to
help decision makers set guidelines for the goals and activities of various
agencies, firms, and governments" (1989:2). In this model, the
anthropologist is a consultant or technician who gathers and analyzes
policy-relevant information and attempts to bring this information to
bear on the policy process.8 While this role certainly would be enhanced
by knowledge drawn from a policy science, it does not appear that the
,existence of such a science is a strict prerequisite; anthropologists may
engage in technical aspects of the policy process strictly on the basis of
their credentials as wielders of anthropological knowledge and
methodology. While policy research expands the knowledge base, this
expansion mainly benefits the subject matter area in which the research
is conducted (e.g., development). Anthropological methods also may be
improved, but the generation of anthropological theory is not an
objective of this approach. The connections between anthropological
theory and practice in this approach appear to be largely undifferentiated
from those found in the linear, or positivist, model.
●● Why do we need a theory of practice?
Answer: In the West there is broad acceptance of the idea that a
discipline (a formal body of knowledge) should have some utility within
its social con- text. The positivist movement that gave rise to the
traditions of modern sci- ence was founded on the premise that
systematic knowledge of the objec- tive universe would bring benefits to
humanity. Usually, in such disci- plines there are systems of ideas that
connect the discipline, and society, to its practice.
●● What is a theory of practice?
Answer: A theory of practice is a set of ideas that explains and
legitimates the role of practice inside and outside the discipline. A theory
of practice answers questions such as: What is the use value of the
discipline, and to whom? Upon what founda- tion does this value reside?
How can this value be further developed and implemented? Testing the
"real world" validity of concepts and theoretical rela- tionships, opening
new fields of research, discovering new phenomena, and advancing
, societal support for the theoretical arm of the discipline through
demonstration of practical value are all ways in which practice is shown
to be necessary for theoretical vitality. Together, these two basic di-
mensions of theory-practice relations explain why theorists and
practitio- ners need and should value one another, based both on their
individual self-interests and on their common interest in seeing the
discipline grow and develop over time
●● Defining Conditions under Which Practice May Contribute to
Theory.
Answer: A theory of practice also helps to establish the epistemological
and meth- odological grounds upon which practice may contribute to
theory. In other words, it delineates the special conditions and
mechanisms which enable practice to generate new knowledge that
would not be generated other- wise. For example, in most disciplines
with mature practice, practitioners must rigorously employ specific
methodologies if their findings are to be taken seriously by theorists. By
requiring sound methodology in practice, a theory of practice legitimates
application as germane to disciplinary knowledge under the canons of
inquiry in a particular discipline.
●● Establishing Requirements for Education and Training.
Answer: A theory of prac- tice is fundamental to education and training.
It is important that both the knowledge and use value of practice be
understood clearly by a commu- nity of learners, so that future
practitioners can be properly prepared for competent professional work.
The training requirement ensures not only that practice will deliver its
intended societal outcomes but that useful knowledge will be generated
PERSPECTIVE COMPREHENSIVE
EXAMINATION TEST COMPLETE
QUESTIONS AND CORRECT ANSWERS
●● What do Applied Anthropologists do?
Answer: Applied anthropology must, of course, be based on pure
anthropology. What is therefore necessary in the first place is the
development of the pure science by the discovery or formulation of the
fundamental principles of social integration. - Anthropologists test
theories then put them into practice
●● Linear Theory
Answer: It was Foster (1969) who initially developed the notion of a
two-way interaction between theory and application, in his critique of
the linear theory of practice. Based on the writing of Leighton (1946),
Fosters work argued that anthropology was not like physics; that is, our
discipline is not sufficiently developed as a science to enable theorists to
"hand off" exact formulations or lawlike generalizations to a class of
technicians (i.e., the "engineering model"). Rather, practitioners need to
be trained to manipulate the same basic concepts and methods as
theorists, and their intellectual work is much the same as that of
theorists: it is creative, discovery oriented, and capable of knowledge
generation
,●● Feedback
Answer: This view was called the "clinical" model, based upon the two-
way interactions between theory and practice in clinical sciences such as
medicine and psychology. Foster envisioned many benefits that could be
derived from a feedback theory of practice: it offered opportunities for
research experience that were not readily available to traditional
theorists, it imported research questions from other intellectual domains,
it broadened the range of topics studied, and it created pressure to
improve research methods. The broader the range of social systems
examined by anthropologists, the more robust our theories would
become.
●● Policy
Answer: In other words, application should inform and improve policy.
applied anthropology as a policy science, that is, a distinct domain of
inquiry and generalizable knowledge that pertains to the formulation and
implementation of governing principles in formal policy-making
contexts. The notion of a special body of theory that fills the gap
between anthropological knowledge, on the one hand, and utilization of
that knowledge, on the other, is a distinctive conceptualization of theory.
This second point of view, sometimes referred to as policy research, is
defined by Rylko-Bauer et al. as "the process by which objective,
representative information is collected, analyzed and communicated to
help decision makers set guidelines for the goals and activities of various
agencies, firms, and governments" (1989:2). In this model, the
anthropologist is a consultant or technician who gathers and analyzes
policy-relevant information and attempts to bring this information to
bear on the policy process.8 While this role certainly would be enhanced
by knowledge drawn from a policy science, it does not appear that the
,existence of such a science is a strict prerequisite; anthropologists may
engage in technical aspects of the policy process strictly on the basis of
their credentials as wielders of anthropological knowledge and
methodology. While policy research expands the knowledge base, this
expansion mainly benefits the subject matter area in which the research
is conducted (e.g., development). Anthropological methods also may be
improved, but the generation of anthropological theory is not an
objective of this approach. The connections between anthropological
theory and practice in this approach appear to be largely undifferentiated
from those found in the linear, or positivist, model.
●● Why do we need a theory of practice?
Answer: In the West there is broad acceptance of the idea that a
discipline (a formal body of knowledge) should have some utility within
its social con- text. The positivist movement that gave rise to the
traditions of modern sci- ence was founded on the premise that
systematic knowledge of the objec- tive universe would bring benefits to
humanity. Usually, in such disci- plines there are systems of ideas that
connect the discipline, and society, to its practice.
●● What is a theory of practice?
Answer: A theory of practice is a set of ideas that explains and
legitimates the role of practice inside and outside the discipline. A theory
of practice answers questions such as: What is the use value of the
discipline, and to whom? Upon what founda- tion does this value reside?
How can this value be further developed and implemented? Testing the
"real world" validity of concepts and theoretical rela- tionships, opening
new fields of research, discovering new phenomena, and advancing
, societal support for the theoretical arm of the discipline through
demonstration of practical value are all ways in which practice is shown
to be necessary for theoretical vitality. Together, these two basic di-
mensions of theory-practice relations explain why theorists and
practitio- ners need and should value one another, based both on their
individual self-interests and on their common interest in seeing the
discipline grow and develop over time
●● Defining Conditions under Which Practice May Contribute to
Theory.
Answer: A theory of practice also helps to establish the epistemological
and meth- odological grounds upon which practice may contribute to
theory. In other words, it delineates the special conditions and
mechanisms which enable practice to generate new knowledge that
would not be generated other- wise. For example, in most disciplines
with mature practice, practitioners must rigorously employ specific
methodologies if their findings are to be taken seriously by theorists. By
requiring sound methodology in practice, a theory of practice legitimates
application as germane to disciplinary knowledge under the canons of
inquiry in a particular discipline.
●● Establishing Requirements for Education and Training.
Answer: A theory of prac- tice is fundamental to education and training.
It is important that both the knowledge and use value of practice be
understood clearly by a commu- nity of learners, so that future
practitioners can be properly prepared for competent professional work.
The training requirement ensures not only that practice will deliver its
intended societal outcomes but that useful knowledge will be generated
