CMY3706 CONTEMPORARY CRIMINOLOGICAL ISSUES - ASSIGNMENT 1
COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATION SEMESTER 2 2026 | DUE 18 AUGUST 2026
SECTION A: THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CONTEMPORARY CRIMINOLOGY
1. Social Learning Theory, as applied to criminal behaviour, was most prominently
developed by which theorist and subsequently expanded by Akers?
A. Robert Merton
B. Edwin Sutherland
C. Cesare Lombroso
D. Travis Hirschi
Answer: B. Edwin Sutherland
Rationale: Sutherland developed differential association theory, which Akers later
expanded into a broader social learning framework encompassing differential association,
definitions, differential reinforcement, and imitation .
2. According to Akers' social learning theory, which element refers to the balance of
anticipated or actual rewards and punishments that follow behaviour?
A. Differential association
B. Definitions
C. Differential reinforcement
D. Imitation
,Answer: C. Differential reinforcement
Rationale: Differential reinforcement involves the balance of rewards and punishments
that shape whether behaviour is repeated or discontinued, forming a core mechanism in
the learning process .
3. Which theory posits that individuals make a conscious decision to commit crime
based on a cost-benefit analysis?
A. Social Learning Theory
B. Strain Theory
C. Rational Choice Theory
D. Labelling Theory
Answer: C. Rational Choice Theory
Rationale: Rational Choice Theory suggests that offenders weigh the potential risks against
the potential rewards before deciding to commit a crime, viewing criminal behaviour as a
calculated decision .
4. Merton's Strain Theory argues that crime occurs when there is a disjuncture
between:
A. Genetic predisposition and environmental factors
B. Culturally defined goals and the legitimate means to achieve them
C. Moral values and legal standards
D. Individual psychology and social norms
Answer: B. Culturally defined goals and the legitimate means to achieve them
Rationale: Merton (1938) proposed that strain arises when individuals accept cultural goals
(like wealth and success) but lack legitimate institutionalized means to achieve them,
potentially leading to innovation or criminal adaptation .
5. According to Merton's typology, which adaptation involves accepting both cultural
goals and institutionalized means?
A. Innovation
B. Ritualism
,C. Retreatism
D. Conformity
Answer: D. Conformity
Rationale: Conformity represents the acceptance of both societal goals and the legitimate
means to achieve them, the most common adaptation in stable societies .
6. The concept of "anomie" as used in criminological theory refers to:
A. A state of normalcy and social cohesion
B. A condition of normlessness or breakdown of social norms
C. An individual psychological disorder
D. A biological predisposition to crime
Answer: B. A condition of normlessness or breakdown of social norms
Rationale: Anomie describes a state where social norms are weakened or absent, often
resulting from rapid social change, leading to increased crime and deviance .
7. Labelling Theory, associated with Lemert and Becker, emphasizes that:
A. Criminal behaviour is biologically determined
B. Deviance is a quality of the act itself
C. Deviance is socially constructed through societal reactions to behaviour
D. Crime is always a rational choice
Answer: C. Deviance is socially constructed through societal reactions to behaviour
Rationale: Labelling Theory focuses on how society's reaction to behaviour can create and
reinforce deviant identities, with Lemert distinguishing between primary and secondary
deviance .
8. According to Lemert, primary deviance refers to:
A. The most serious criminal offences
B. Initial acts of deviance that do not affect an individual's self-concept
C. Deviance that results from being labelled as deviant
D. Criminal behaviour learned through peer associations
, Answer: B. Initial acts of deviance that do not affect an individual's self-concept
Rationale: Primary deviance involves isolated norm violations that do not change how the
individual views themselves; secondary deviance occurs when the person internalizes the
deviant label .
9. Which theory is most concerned with how the "robber" label might cause an
individual to commit more crime?
A. Strain Theory
B. Labelling Theory
C. Social Control Theory
D. Routine Activity Theory
Answer: B. Labelling Theory
Rationale: Labelling Theory explains how being publicly labelled as a criminal can lead to
stigmatization, exclusion, and further deviance as the individual accepts and internalizes
the criminal identity .
10. Social Control Theory, as developed by Travis Hirschi, suggests that crime is more
likely when:
A. An individual's bonds to society are weak or broken
B. An individual has high intelligence
C. An individual experiences economic prosperity
D. An individual has strong religious beliefs
Answer: A. An individual's bonds to society are weak or broken
Rationale: Hirschi's Social Control Theory posits that strong attachments to family, school,
and conventional institutions prevent criminal behaviour by creating bonds of
commitment, involvement, and belief .
11. Which of the following is NOT one of the four elements of Hirschi's social bond?
A. Attachment
B. Commitment
COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATION SEMESTER 2 2026 | DUE 18 AUGUST 2026
SECTION A: THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CONTEMPORARY CRIMINOLOGY
1. Social Learning Theory, as applied to criminal behaviour, was most prominently
developed by which theorist and subsequently expanded by Akers?
A. Robert Merton
B. Edwin Sutherland
C. Cesare Lombroso
D. Travis Hirschi
Answer: B. Edwin Sutherland
Rationale: Sutherland developed differential association theory, which Akers later
expanded into a broader social learning framework encompassing differential association,
definitions, differential reinforcement, and imitation .
2. According to Akers' social learning theory, which element refers to the balance of
anticipated or actual rewards and punishments that follow behaviour?
A. Differential association
B. Definitions
C. Differential reinforcement
D. Imitation
,Answer: C. Differential reinforcement
Rationale: Differential reinforcement involves the balance of rewards and punishments
that shape whether behaviour is repeated or discontinued, forming a core mechanism in
the learning process .
3. Which theory posits that individuals make a conscious decision to commit crime
based on a cost-benefit analysis?
A. Social Learning Theory
B. Strain Theory
C. Rational Choice Theory
D. Labelling Theory
Answer: C. Rational Choice Theory
Rationale: Rational Choice Theory suggests that offenders weigh the potential risks against
the potential rewards before deciding to commit a crime, viewing criminal behaviour as a
calculated decision .
4. Merton's Strain Theory argues that crime occurs when there is a disjuncture
between:
A. Genetic predisposition and environmental factors
B. Culturally defined goals and the legitimate means to achieve them
C. Moral values and legal standards
D. Individual psychology and social norms
Answer: B. Culturally defined goals and the legitimate means to achieve them
Rationale: Merton (1938) proposed that strain arises when individuals accept cultural goals
(like wealth and success) but lack legitimate institutionalized means to achieve them,
potentially leading to innovation or criminal adaptation .
5. According to Merton's typology, which adaptation involves accepting both cultural
goals and institutionalized means?
A. Innovation
B. Ritualism
,C. Retreatism
D. Conformity
Answer: D. Conformity
Rationale: Conformity represents the acceptance of both societal goals and the legitimate
means to achieve them, the most common adaptation in stable societies .
6. The concept of "anomie" as used in criminological theory refers to:
A. A state of normalcy and social cohesion
B. A condition of normlessness or breakdown of social norms
C. An individual psychological disorder
D. A biological predisposition to crime
Answer: B. A condition of normlessness or breakdown of social norms
Rationale: Anomie describes a state where social norms are weakened or absent, often
resulting from rapid social change, leading to increased crime and deviance .
7. Labelling Theory, associated with Lemert and Becker, emphasizes that:
A. Criminal behaviour is biologically determined
B. Deviance is a quality of the act itself
C. Deviance is socially constructed through societal reactions to behaviour
D. Crime is always a rational choice
Answer: C. Deviance is socially constructed through societal reactions to behaviour
Rationale: Labelling Theory focuses on how society's reaction to behaviour can create and
reinforce deviant identities, with Lemert distinguishing between primary and secondary
deviance .
8. According to Lemert, primary deviance refers to:
A. The most serious criminal offences
B. Initial acts of deviance that do not affect an individual's self-concept
C. Deviance that results from being labelled as deviant
D. Criminal behaviour learned through peer associations
, Answer: B. Initial acts of deviance that do not affect an individual's self-concept
Rationale: Primary deviance involves isolated norm violations that do not change how the
individual views themselves; secondary deviance occurs when the person internalizes the
deviant label .
9. Which theory is most concerned with how the "robber" label might cause an
individual to commit more crime?
A. Strain Theory
B. Labelling Theory
C. Social Control Theory
D. Routine Activity Theory
Answer: B. Labelling Theory
Rationale: Labelling Theory explains how being publicly labelled as a criminal can lead to
stigmatization, exclusion, and further deviance as the individual accepts and internalizes
the criminal identity .
10. Social Control Theory, as developed by Travis Hirschi, suggests that crime is more
likely when:
A. An individual's bonds to society are weak or broken
B. An individual has high intelligence
C. An individual experiences economic prosperity
D. An individual has strong religious beliefs
Answer: A. An individual's bonds to society are weak or broken
Rationale: Hirschi's Social Control Theory posits that strong attachments to family, school,
and conventional institutions prevent criminal behaviour by creating bonds of
commitment, involvement, and belief .
11. Which of the following is NOT one of the four elements of Hirschi's social bond?
A. Attachment
B. Commitment
