BIOS 255 A&P III FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE2020
Essay questions to know
What are innate and adaptive immune systems, how they work and how
they interact.
Adaptive immunity is the ability of the body to defend itself against specific
invading agents
Antigens are substances recognized as foreign that provoke immune
responses
Adaptive immunity has both specificity and memory and is divided into 2
types
1. Cell-mediated
2. Antibody-mediated
In cell-mediated immunity:
An antigen is recognized and bound
A small number of T cells proliferate and differentiate into a clone of
effector cells
The antigen is eliminated
In antibody-mediated immunity:
An antigen is recognized and bound
Helper T cells costimulate the B cell so the B cell can proliferate and
differentiate into a clone of effector cells that produce antibodies
The antigen is eliminated
Innate immunity refers to a variety of body responses that serve to protect us
against invasion of a wide variety of pathogens and their toxins.
We are born with this kind of immunity
Two lines of defense: Nonspecific disease resistance fight a wide variety of
invaders.
1st: Skin and mucous membranes: barriers, antimicrobial substances
2nd: Internal defenses (cellular defenses), inflammation, and fever
Describe the anatomy and functions of the spleen.
, a. The spleen is the largest single mass of lymphatic tissue in
the body. It is found in the left hypochondriac region
between stomach and the diaphragm. It is composed of
white pulp and red pulp. Red pulp filters blood and gets rid
of old or damaged blood cells. White pulp consists of
immune cells and helps fight infection. The spleen acts as a
blood filter, if it detects bad bacteria, viruses in the blood, it
and the lymph nodes create lymphocytes which act as
defenders.
What is ventilation, external respiration and internal respiration. What
are their functions and Location.
1. Pulmonary ventilation, or breathing, is the movement of air between the
atmosphere and the lungs that occurs when we inhale and exhale
2. External respiration is the movement of oxygen from the alveoli into
pulmonary capillaries and carbon dioxide from pulmonary capillaries to the
alveoli.
3. Internal respiration is the movement of oxygen from capillaries into body
cells and carbon dioxide from body cells into capillaries.
Neural control of ventilation including brain centers, sensory and motor signals.
Respiratory center- Neurons in the pons and medulla oblongata of the brain stem
that regulate breathing. It is divided into the medullary respiratory center and the
pontine respiratory center.
Within the medullary respiratory center, you find two respiratory groups, the
ventral respiratory group (AKA expiratory area) and the dorsal respiratory group
(AKA inspiratory area). The DRG generates impulses to the diaphragm via the
phrenic nerves and the external intercostals via the intercostal nerves. These
impulses trigger contraction of these muscles which in turn execute inhalation.
When the nerves are not firing, this passive relaxation allows recoil of the lungs
and thoracic wall, passive exhalation. The VRG is only activated during forceful
inhalation and trigger the accessory muscles to work. An important part of the
, VRG is the Pre-Botzinger Complex which is believed to be important in the
generation of the rhythm of breathing (Pacemaker cells)
Medulla oblongata receives signals & increases ventilation; pons controls rate of
involuntary respiration; motor cortex; respiratory chemoreceptors
Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood. How does
loading/unloading of these gases take place in the lungs vs. tissues.
Dissolved in plasma (1.5%) (= blood PO2)
Remember, O2 is not very soluble in blood!
2. Bound to hemoglobin in RBCs (98.5%)
The final step in the exchange of gases between the external environment
and the tissues is the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the
lung by the blood. Oxygen is carried both physically dissolved in the blood
and chemically combined to hemoglobin. Carbon dioxide is carried
physically dissolved in the blood, chemically combined to blood proteins as
carbamino compounds, and as bicarbonate.
Oxygen is transported both physically dissolved in blood and chemically
combined to the hemoglobin in the erythrocytes. Much more oxygen is
normally transported combined with hemoglobin than is physically
dissolved in the blood. Without hemoglobin, the cardiovascular system
could not supply sufficient oxygen to meet tissue demands.
Oxygen is loaded in blood in the pulmonary capillaries where the oxygen
tension is 100 mm Hg as a result of alveolar ventilation. Oxygen is unloaded
from the blood in the peripheral tissues where the oxygen tension is roughly
40 mm Hg as a result of peripheral tissue oxygen consumption.
Calculation of minute ventilation and mean arterial pressure
Essay questions to know
What are innate and adaptive immune systems, how they work and how
they interact.
Adaptive immunity is the ability of the body to defend itself against specific
invading agents
Antigens are substances recognized as foreign that provoke immune
responses
Adaptive immunity has both specificity and memory and is divided into 2
types
1. Cell-mediated
2. Antibody-mediated
In cell-mediated immunity:
An antigen is recognized and bound
A small number of T cells proliferate and differentiate into a clone of
effector cells
The antigen is eliminated
In antibody-mediated immunity:
An antigen is recognized and bound
Helper T cells costimulate the B cell so the B cell can proliferate and
differentiate into a clone of effector cells that produce antibodies
The antigen is eliminated
Innate immunity refers to a variety of body responses that serve to protect us
against invasion of a wide variety of pathogens and their toxins.
We are born with this kind of immunity
Two lines of defense: Nonspecific disease resistance fight a wide variety of
invaders.
1st: Skin and mucous membranes: barriers, antimicrobial substances
2nd: Internal defenses (cellular defenses), inflammation, and fever
Describe the anatomy and functions of the spleen.
, a. The spleen is the largest single mass of lymphatic tissue in
the body. It is found in the left hypochondriac region
between stomach and the diaphragm. It is composed of
white pulp and red pulp. Red pulp filters blood and gets rid
of old or damaged blood cells. White pulp consists of
immune cells and helps fight infection. The spleen acts as a
blood filter, if it detects bad bacteria, viruses in the blood, it
and the lymph nodes create lymphocytes which act as
defenders.
What is ventilation, external respiration and internal respiration. What
are their functions and Location.
1. Pulmonary ventilation, or breathing, is the movement of air between the
atmosphere and the lungs that occurs when we inhale and exhale
2. External respiration is the movement of oxygen from the alveoli into
pulmonary capillaries and carbon dioxide from pulmonary capillaries to the
alveoli.
3. Internal respiration is the movement of oxygen from capillaries into body
cells and carbon dioxide from body cells into capillaries.
Neural control of ventilation including brain centers, sensory and motor signals.
Respiratory center- Neurons in the pons and medulla oblongata of the brain stem
that regulate breathing. It is divided into the medullary respiratory center and the
pontine respiratory center.
Within the medullary respiratory center, you find two respiratory groups, the
ventral respiratory group (AKA expiratory area) and the dorsal respiratory group
(AKA inspiratory area). The DRG generates impulses to the diaphragm via the
phrenic nerves and the external intercostals via the intercostal nerves. These
impulses trigger contraction of these muscles which in turn execute inhalation.
When the nerves are not firing, this passive relaxation allows recoil of the lungs
and thoracic wall, passive exhalation. The VRG is only activated during forceful
inhalation and trigger the accessory muscles to work. An important part of the
, VRG is the Pre-Botzinger Complex which is believed to be important in the
generation of the rhythm of breathing (Pacemaker cells)
Medulla oblongata receives signals & increases ventilation; pons controls rate of
involuntary respiration; motor cortex; respiratory chemoreceptors
Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood. How does
loading/unloading of these gases take place in the lungs vs. tissues.
Dissolved in plasma (1.5%) (= blood PO2)
Remember, O2 is not very soluble in blood!
2. Bound to hemoglobin in RBCs (98.5%)
The final step in the exchange of gases between the external environment
and the tissues is the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the
lung by the blood. Oxygen is carried both physically dissolved in the blood
and chemically combined to hemoglobin. Carbon dioxide is carried
physically dissolved in the blood, chemically combined to blood proteins as
carbamino compounds, and as bicarbonate.
Oxygen is transported both physically dissolved in blood and chemically
combined to the hemoglobin in the erythrocytes. Much more oxygen is
normally transported combined with hemoglobin than is physically
dissolved in the blood. Without hemoglobin, the cardiovascular system
could not supply sufficient oxygen to meet tissue demands.
Oxygen is loaded in blood in the pulmonary capillaries where the oxygen
tension is 100 mm Hg as a result of alveolar ventilation. Oxygen is unloaded
from the blood in the peripheral tissues where the oxygen tension is roughly
40 mm Hg as a result of peripheral tissue oxygen consumption.
Calculation of minute ventilation and mean arterial pressure
