BIO 110 FINAL EXAM – JOSEPH RICHARDS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS |
COMPLETE BIOLOGY FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE 2026/2027
What are electron orbitals? What do they resemble? - ✔✔Regions around the nucleus where it is highly
probable to find an electron
They resemble a cloud
What is mass? - ✔✔Mass is the amount of matter in a substance
What is weight? - ✔✔Weight is determined by gravitational pull
What are daltons? What are moles? - ✔✔A dalton is the mass of one proton, also called amu
Moles are the amount of atoms
What are the 4 main elements in living organisms? - ✔✔Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, and Carbon
What is a molecule/compound? - ✔✔A molecule/compound is 2+ atoms bonded together
What is molecular formula? - ✔✔Molecular formula is chemical symbols with subscripts showing how
they are bonded together
What are covalent bonds? What types are there? Are they strong or weak? Why do covalent bonds
form? - ✔✔Covalent bonds happen when atoms share electron pairs
There are non polar and polar covalent bonds
They are very strong
They form to fulfill the octet rule
What are nonpolar covalent bonds? - ✔✔The atoms that are sharing electrons have similar
electronegativity
What are polar covalent bonds? Are electrons shared equally? - ✔✔The atoms that share electrons
have different electronegativity
Electrons share unequally, and the more electronegative atom typically brings the electron closer to
them
What is electronegativity? - ✔✔Electronegativity is the attraction to electrons in an atom
What is polarity? What does it cause in polar covalent bonds? - ✔✔Polarity is a difference in electric
charge
,It causes partial negative and positive charges
What are Hydrogen bonds? Are they strong or weak? - ✔✔When a hydrogen atom from a polar
molecule is attracted to an electronegative atom
They are weak individually, but strong together
What are ions? What types of ions are there? What are ionic bonds? - ✔✔Ions are atoms that gain or
lose electrons
There are cations (lost an electron and have a positive charge) and anions (gained an electron and have a
negative charge)
Ionic bonds are bonds between anions and cations
(compounds are called salts)
What type of shape do molecules have? Can molecules change their shape? - ✔✔Atoms have a 3
dimensional shape determined by their bonds
Covalent bonds allow rotation so molecules can change shape
What are free radicals? What are highly reactive molecules? How do these things impact organisms? -
✔✔Free radicals are molecules with 1 unpaired electron in the outer shell
Highly reactive molecules steal an electron from atoms to fill their free radical
It can cause cell damage and kill invading bacteria
What are chemical reactions? What is involved in chemical reactions? - ✔✔When substances are
changed into other substances
Involves reactants, products, and energy
What is a solution? What are the different parts of a solution? How is water important in solutions? -
✔✔A solution is solutes (the dissolved substance) being dissolved in solvents (liquid that is being
dissolved in)
Water is a solvent for aqueous solutions
What does hydrophilic mean? Hydrophobic? Amphipathic? - ✔✔A substance that readily dissolved in
water (ie ionic or polar covalent bonds)
A substance that does not dissolve in water (non polar substances)
Substances that have polar and non polar regions
What is concentration? What is molarity? - ✔✔Concentration is the amount of a solute dissolved in a
specified unit of a solution (1g/L)
,Molarity is the number of moles of a solute dissolved in 1L of water
What is heat of vaporization? What is heat of fusion? - ✔✔The energy required to vaporize 1 mol of a
substance at its boiling point
The energy that must be released to change a substance from liquid to solid
What is required for state changes? - ✔✔An input or release of energy
What is specific heat? - ✔✔The amount of energy input needed to raise or lower the temperature by 1
degree Celsius
What is significant about heat of fusion and vaporization in water? What is significant about specific heat
in water? What does this imply about water? - ✔✔All 3 are incredibly high in water. This causes water
to be extremely stable as a liquid, with a slow rising and falling temperature
Why is ice less dense than water? - ✔✔The hydrogen bonds in ice are stable and far apart, lowering the
density
How do solutes affect the properties of water? What are antifreeze molecules? - ✔✔Solutes lower the
freezing point and raise the boiling point
Antifreeze molecules lower the freezing point of fluids to prevent cells from freezing
What are important functions of water (6) and what do they mean? - ✔✔1. Hydrolysis and dehydration
reactions
2. Providing support
3. Removing toxic waste
4. Evaporative cooling allows heat energy to release when sweat dries by breaking hydrogen bonds and
converting liquid to gas
5. Cohesion (water molecules attract each other) and Adhesion (water molecules attract charged
surfaces)
6. Surface tension (caused by cohesion of water molecules at water's surface)
What are acids? What are bases? - ✔✔Acids release hydrogen ions into a solution
Bases lower the hydrogen concentration by releasing hydroxide ions
How is pH measured? What do the numbers on the pH scale mean? - ✔✔pH = -log[hydrogen ions]
Acidic < 6.9999
Neutral = 7
Basic > 7.0001
What does pH affect? (4 things) - ✔✔1. The functions of molecules
2. The rate of chemical reactions
3. The ability for molecules to bind to each other
, 4. The ability of molecules to dissolve in water
What are buffers? What is an acid-base buffer? - ✔✔Buffers help maintain a constant pH
Acid-base buffers remove or release hydrogen ions to fix pH changes
What are the 3 components of cell theory? - ✔✔1. All living things are made up of 1+ cells
2. Cells are the smallest unit of life
3. Cells come from pre-existing cells via cell division
What is microscopy? - ✔✔The study of microscopes and micrographs
What is magnification? What is resolution? What is contrast? - ✔✔The ratio between the size of an
image on a microscope and the object's actual size
The measure of clarity and the ability to see 2 objects as distinct from each other
The relative difference in lightness, darkness, and color
What is a light microscope? What are the types of light microscopy? - ✔✔A microscope that uses light
for illumination
There is standard microscopy (light passing through the sample) and phase contrast microscopy
(microscope amplifies differences in phase of light that is transmitted or reflected by the sample--
improved contrast)
What is an electron microscope? What are the 2 types of electron microscopy? - ✔✔A microscope that
uses an electron beam for illusion
There is transmission electron microscopy (Electron beams are sent through the sample) and scanning
electron microscopy (Electron beam scans surface to make a 3D image)
What are prokaryotes? What are eukaryotes? - ✔✔Prokaryotes have simples cell structure with NO
nucleus. These include bacteria and archaea
Eukaryotes are complex cells with a membrane-bound nucleus with DNA and internal organelles
What is cytoplasm? What is the nucleoid region? What are the ribosomes? Where are all of these things
found? [Prokaryote cell] - ✔✔Region inside the plasma membrane where metabolism occurs
Where the DNA is found
Synthesize proteins with subunits
All of these are found inside the plasma membrane
What is the cell wall? What is the glycocalyx? What is the pili? What is the flagella? Where are all of
these things located? [Prokaryote cell] - ✔✔Provides support and protection
COMPLETE BIOLOGY FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE 2026/2027
What are electron orbitals? What do they resemble? - ✔✔Regions around the nucleus where it is highly
probable to find an electron
They resemble a cloud
What is mass? - ✔✔Mass is the amount of matter in a substance
What is weight? - ✔✔Weight is determined by gravitational pull
What are daltons? What are moles? - ✔✔A dalton is the mass of one proton, also called amu
Moles are the amount of atoms
What are the 4 main elements in living organisms? - ✔✔Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, and Carbon
What is a molecule/compound? - ✔✔A molecule/compound is 2+ atoms bonded together
What is molecular formula? - ✔✔Molecular formula is chemical symbols with subscripts showing how
they are bonded together
What are covalent bonds? What types are there? Are they strong or weak? Why do covalent bonds
form? - ✔✔Covalent bonds happen when atoms share electron pairs
There are non polar and polar covalent bonds
They are very strong
They form to fulfill the octet rule
What are nonpolar covalent bonds? - ✔✔The atoms that are sharing electrons have similar
electronegativity
What are polar covalent bonds? Are electrons shared equally? - ✔✔The atoms that share electrons
have different electronegativity
Electrons share unequally, and the more electronegative atom typically brings the electron closer to
them
What is electronegativity? - ✔✔Electronegativity is the attraction to electrons in an atom
What is polarity? What does it cause in polar covalent bonds? - ✔✔Polarity is a difference in electric
charge
,It causes partial negative and positive charges
What are Hydrogen bonds? Are they strong or weak? - ✔✔When a hydrogen atom from a polar
molecule is attracted to an electronegative atom
They are weak individually, but strong together
What are ions? What types of ions are there? What are ionic bonds? - ✔✔Ions are atoms that gain or
lose electrons
There are cations (lost an electron and have a positive charge) and anions (gained an electron and have a
negative charge)
Ionic bonds are bonds between anions and cations
(compounds are called salts)
What type of shape do molecules have? Can molecules change their shape? - ✔✔Atoms have a 3
dimensional shape determined by their bonds
Covalent bonds allow rotation so molecules can change shape
What are free radicals? What are highly reactive molecules? How do these things impact organisms? -
✔✔Free radicals are molecules with 1 unpaired electron in the outer shell
Highly reactive molecules steal an electron from atoms to fill their free radical
It can cause cell damage and kill invading bacteria
What are chemical reactions? What is involved in chemical reactions? - ✔✔When substances are
changed into other substances
Involves reactants, products, and energy
What is a solution? What are the different parts of a solution? How is water important in solutions? -
✔✔A solution is solutes (the dissolved substance) being dissolved in solvents (liquid that is being
dissolved in)
Water is a solvent for aqueous solutions
What does hydrophilic mean? Hydrophobic? Amphipathic? - ✔✔A substance that readily dissolved in
water (ie ionic or polar covalent bonds)
A substance that does not dissolve in water (non polar substances)
Substances that have polar and non polar regions
What is concentration? What is molarity? - ✔✔Concentration is the amount of a solute dissolved in a
specified unit of a solution (1g/L)
,Molarity is the number of moles of a solute dissolved in 1L of water
What is heat of vaporization? What is heat of fusion? - ✔✔The energy required to vaporize 1 mol of a
substance at its boiling point
The energy that must be released to change a substance from liquid to solid
What is required for state changes? - ✔✔An input or release of energy
What is specific heat? - ✔✔The amount of energy input needed to raise or lower the temperature by 1
degree Celsius
What is significant about heat of fusion and vaporization in water? What is significant about specific heat
in water? What does this imply about water? - ✔✔All 3 are incredibly high in water. This causes water
to be extremely stable as a liquid, with a slow rising and falling temperature
Why is ice less dense than water? - ✔✔The hydrogen bonds in ice are stable and far apart, lowering the
density
How do solutes affect the properties of water? What are antifreeze molecules? - ✔✔Solutes lower the
freezing point and raise the boiling point
Antifreeze molecules lower the freezing point of fluids to prevent cells from freezing
What are important functions of water (6) and what do they mean? - ✔✔1. Hydrolysis and dehydration
reactions
2. Providing support
3. Removing toxic waste
4. Evaporative cooling allows heat energy to release when sweat dries by breaking hydrogen bonds and
converting liquid to gas
5. Cohesion (water molecules attract each other) and Adhesion (water molecules attract charged
surfaces)
6. Surface tension (caused by cohesion of water molecules at water's surface)
What are acids? What are bases? - ✔✔Acids release hydrogen ions into a solution
Bases lower the hydrogen concentration by releasing hydroxide ions
How is pH measured? What do the numbers on the pH scale mean? - ✔✔pH = -log[hydrogen ions]
Acidic < 6.9999
Neutral = 7
Basic > 7.0001
What does pH affect? (4 things) - ✔✔1. The functions of molecules
2. The rate of chemical reactions
3. The ability for molecules to bind to each other
, 4. The ability of molecules to dissolve in water
What are buffers? What is an acid-base buffer? - ✔✔Buffers help maintain a constant pH
Acid-base buffers remove or release hydrogen ions to fix pH changes
What are the 3 components of cell theory? - ✔✔1. All living things are made up of 1+ cells
2. Cells are the smallest unit of life
3. Cells come from pre-existing cells via cell division
What is microscopy? - ✔✔The study of microscopes and micrographs
What is magnification? What is resolution? What is contrast? - ✔✔The ratio between the size of an
image on a microscope and the object's actual size
The measure of clarity and the ability to see 2 objects as distinct from each other
The relative difference in lightness, darkness, and color
What is a light microscope? What are the types of light microscopy? - ✔✔A microscope that uses light
for illumination
There is standard microscopy (light passing through the sample) and phase contrast microscopy
(microscope amplifies differences in phase of light that is transmitted or reflected by the sample--
improved contrast)
What is an electron microscope? What are the 2 types of electron microscopy? - ✔✔A microscope that
uses an electron beam for illusion
There is transmission electron microscopy (Electron beams are sent through the sample) and scanning
electron microscopy (Electron beam scans surface to make a 3D image)
What are prokaryotes? What are eukaryotes? - ✔✔Prokaryotes have simples cell structure with NO
nucleus. These include bacteria and archaea
Eukaryotes are complex cells with a membrane-bound nucleus with DNA and internal organelles
What is cytoplasm? What is the nucleoid region? What are the ribosomes? Where are all of these things
found? [Prokaryote cell] - ✔✔Region inside the plasma membrane where metabolism occurs
Where the DNA is found
Synthesize proteins with subunits
All of these are found inside the plasma membrane
What is the cell wall? What is the glycocalyx? What is the pili? What is the flagella? Where are all of
these things located? [Prokaryote cell] - ✔✔Provides support and protection
