FCRNfoodsource
A free and evolving resource to empower informed
discussion on sustainable food systems
Chapter 7.
How are food systems
diets, and health
connected?
Foodsource is supported by: Fondation Daniel & Nina Carasso — Esmée Fairbairn Foundation — The Oxford Martin programme on the Future of Food —
The Oxford Martin School —Jam Today — University of Manchester Sustainable Consumption Institute — The Wellcome Trust — WRAP
,Foodsource Chapter 7. How are food systems diets, and health connected?
Contents
Why should you read this Chapter? 3
Key points 3
7.1 How are food systems and health connected and influenced? 4
7.1.1 Connections between food and health 4
7.1.2 Influences on food consumption 5
7.1.3 The importance of the socio-economic context 6
7.2 What is food security and how is it defined? 8
7.2.1 Defining food security 8
7.2.2 Influences on food security 8
7.3 What are the global challenges for nutrition? 9
7.3.1 Malnutrition in all its forms is a global concern 10
7.3.2 Some progress is being made in reducing undernutrition 10
7.3.3 11
7.3.4 12
7.4 How does malnutrition in its various forms differ 15
between regions and demographic groups?
Overview of prevalence and distribution of malnutrition 15
7.4.1 Undernutrition 15
7.4.2 Micronutrient deficiencies 16
7.4.3 Obesity 18
7.5 What causes different forms of malnutrition? 19
Overview 19
7.5.1 Undernutrition 20
7.5.2 Nutrient deficiencies 20
7.5.3 Obesity 21
7.6 How are diets changing globally? 23
7.6.1 What is the nutrition transition? 23
7.6.2 What are the trends? 24
7.7 What are the societal and economic consequences 27
of malnutrition in all its forms?
7.7.1 Socio-economic costs of undernutrition 27
7.7.2 Economic costs of overconsumption 27
7.7.3 Social costs of related non-communicable diseases 29
7.8 Conclusions 29
References 30
Credits 34
© 2015 2
,Foodsource Chapter 7. How are food systems diets, and health connected?
GO TO
CONTENTS
Why should you read this Chapter?
Today, billions are malnourished: not eating a diet containing energy and nutrients in
healthy amounts. Both lack of food and excess of consumption cause huge levels of disease
worldwide. To a significant extent, the food systems in which people participate determine
what people can and do eat (i.e. their diets); and as a consequence, their health.
Food systems are, therefore, central to solving many of the world’s biggest health
challenges. But the way in which they affect health in different regions and among different
groups of people is complex, and varies greatly. An understanding of these interconnections
and their effects is needed, in order for food systems to be changed in ways that promote
human-wellbing.
The chapter addresses the following:
• What are the drivers of dietary choices at individual and societal levels?
• What is food security and what factors determine or influence it?
• Global challenges for nutrition: what forms can malnutrition take?
• How do these vary by region and demographic group?
• What causes malnutrition?
• How are nutritional problems changing over time?
• What are the consequences of these problems for society and the economy?
Key points
• Food is linked to health and human well-being • In higher-income countries, overweight and obesity
of people in numerous ways, including: diet and correlates negatively with wealth: i.e. there is a higher
nutrition; environmental pollution; and the spread prevalence amongst more economically deprived
of infectious diseases via food production and people and their children. However, at a global level,
consumption. overweight and obesity are more prevalent in richer
• Food consumption of individuals and households is countries.
shaped by multiple, complex, and interlinking factors. • Undernutrition is result of energy deficiencies,
Similarly, diet-related health impacts are determined leading to low body weight and hunger. Often this
by a range of factors ranging from individual biology, arises from poverty and a diet lacking in diversity,
cultural and social context, up to economic and dominated by grains or tubers. It is of greatest
political decisions at national and international levels. prevalence in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.
• The health benefits and risks associated with • The geographic prevalence of micronutrient
food are unequally distributed between different deficiencies depends on the nutrient, as deficiencies
socioeconomic backgrounds, genders and locations. can accompany both under- and overnutrition, and
Food access is critical to this: poorer people typically
depends on local food systems and diets. Nutrient
spend a higher proportion of their weekly budget on
deficiencies can lead to a vast array of specific
food – either cutting back on food or on other health
deficiency diseases, and can occur with or without
promoting necessities.
sufficient total calorie intake.
• Food security is a necessary condition for human
• Overweight and obesity, caused by overconsumption
well-being. Food security for any individual or
of calories, are associated with diets rich in energy
community is the outcome of four necessary
conditions being in place: food needs to be available dense food types, such as fats and sugars, and can
(physically obtainable), accessible (socially / contribute to Type 2 diabetes, heart disease, strokes
economically obtainable), utilisable (consumable / and some cancers. Their causes are multiple and
digestible) – and these three factors have to be stable complex, influenced by lifestyle, socioeconomic and
over time (reliable). genetic factors.
• Malnutrition has various forms: undernutrition; • As food systems become more globalised, countries
micronutrient deficiencies; and overconsumption. transition from localised food scarcity and hunger,
Some progress is being made on undernutrition; towards a state of over-consumption (which is where
micronutrient deficiencies are still widespread; and developed countries currently sit), then theoretically
over consumption and its attendant health concerns and optimistically, towards healthier and more
are worsening. sustainable diets.
© 2015 3
, Foodsource Chapter 7. How are food systems diets, and health connected?
GO TO
CONTENTS
7.1 How are food systems and health
connected and influenced?
7.1.1 Connections between food and health
Some of the links between food and health are shown below.
Health concern The food system’s role
Environmental health risks Different environmental health risks exist relating to
water and air pollution, in addition to risks to food
systems from climate change (see Chapter 6 for
climate change impacts on food systems). Manure
and agrochemicals cause water pollution which may
lead to acute poisoning and long term harms (e.g.
cancers, reproductive disorders); field burning and
intensive livestock systems cause air pollution and
respiratory illnesses; ecosystem damage and climate
change (to which food systems contribute) alters
patterns of disease and pest movements, leads to
loss of resilience, and reduced ability to adapt to
future climate shocks.
Food security, nutrition and Critical factors include the type and quantity of food
associated diseases produced, the way it is processed and marketed, its
price and availability, access to adequate storage and
cooking, and many other factors. These variously
give rise to: undernutrition (protein and/or energy
deficiencies); overconsumption (leading to obesity
and associated chronic diseases); and micronutrient
deficiencies.
Infectious diseases and Zoonotic diseases; food pathogens from livestock
injuries production or inadequate storage; antimicrobial
resistance especially from intensive livestock systems;
vector borne diseases from agri-induced land use
change and water infrastructure; pesticide and
agrochemical poisonings; occupational hazards
(heat stress, injuries, UV radiation, and other unsafe
working conditions).
Health equity impacts Health risks and benefits are unevenly distributed
among rich and poor, rural and urban, women and
men, land owners and the landless, arising from
factors such as affordability, access, time and
knowledge.
Table 1: Food and health are connected in many ways.
© 2015 4
A free and evolving resource to empower informed
discussion on sustainable food systems
Chapter 7.
How are food systems
diets, and health
connected?
Foodsource is supported by: Fondation Daniel & Nina Carasso — Esmée Fairbairn Foundation — The Oxford Martin programme on the Future of Food —
The Oxford Martin School —Jam Today — University of Manchester Sustainable Consumption Institute — The Wellcome Trust — WRAP
,Foodsource Chapter 7. How are food systems diets, and health connected?
Contents
Why should you read this Chapter? 3
Key points 3
7.1 How are food systems and health connected and influenced? 4
7.1.1 Connections between food and health 4
7.1.2 Influences on food consumption 5
7.1.3 The importance of the socio-economic context 6
7.2 What is food security and how is it defined? 8
7.2.1 Defining food security 8
7.2.2 Influences on food security 8
7.3 What are the global challenges for nutrition? 9
7.3.1 Malnutrition in all its forms is a global concern 10
7.3.2 Some progress is being made in reducing undernutrition 10
7.3.3 11
7.3.4 12
7.4 How does malnutrition in its various forms differ 15
between regions and demographic groups?
Overview of prevalence and distribution of malnutrition 15
7.4.1 Undernutrition 15
7.4.2 Micronutrient deficiencies 16
7.4.3 Obesity 18
7.5 What causes different forms of malnutrition? 19
Overview 19
7.5.1 Undernutrition 20
7.5.2 Nutrient deficiencies 20
7.5.3 Obesity 21
7.6 How are diets changing globally? 23
7.6.1 What is the nutrition transition? 23
7.6.2 What are the trends? 24
7.7 What are the societal and economic consequences 27
of malnutrition in all its forms?
7.7.1 Socio-economic costs of undernutrition 27
7.7.2 Economic costs of overconsumption 27
7.7.3 Social costs of related non-communicable diseases 29
7.8 Conclusions 29
References 30
Credits 34
© 2015 2
,Foodsource Chapter 7. How are food systems diets, and health connected?
GO TO
CONTENTS
Why should you read this Chapter?
Today, billions are malnourished: not eating a diet containing energy and nutrients in
healthy amounts. Both lack of food and excess of consumption cause huge levels of disease
worldwide. To a significant extent, the food systems in which people participate determine
what people can and do eat (i.e. their diets); and as a consequence, their health.
Food systems are, therefore, central to solving many of the world’s biggest health
challenges. But the way in which they affect health in different regions and among different
groups of people is complex, and varies greatly. An understanding of these interconnections
and their effects is needed, in order for food systems to be changed in ways that promote
human-wellbing.
The chapter addresses the following:
• What are the drivers of dietary choices at individual and societal levels?
• What is food security and what factors determine or influence it?
• Global challenges for nutrition: what forms can malnutrition take?
• How do these vary by region and demographic group?
• What causes malnutrition?
• How are nutritional problems changing over time?
• What are the consequences of these problems for society and the economy?
Key points
• Food is linked to health and human well-being • In higher-income countries, overweight and obesity
of people in numerous ways, including: diet and correlates negatively with wealth: i.e. there is a higher
nutrition; environmental pollution; and the spread prevalence amongst more economically deprived
of infectious diseases via food production and people and their children. However, at a global level,
consumption. overweight and obesity are more prevalent in richer
• Food consumption of individuals and households is countries.
shaped by multiple, complex, and interlinking factors. • Undernutrition is result of energy deficiencies,
Similarly, diet-related health impacts are determined leading to low body weight and hunger. Often this
by a range of factors ranging from individual biology, arises from poverty and a diet lacking in diversity,
cultural and social context, up to economic and dominated by grains or tubers. It is of greatest
political decisions at national and international levels. prevalence in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia.
• The health benefits and risks associated with • The geographic prevalence of micronutrient
food are unequally distributed between different deficiencies depends on the nutrient, as deficiencies
socioeconomic backgrounds, genders and locations. can accompany both under- and overnutrition, and
Food access is critical to this: poorer people typically
depends on local food systems and diets. Nutrient
spend a higher proportion of their weekly budget on
deficiencies can lead to a vast array of specific
food – either cutting back on food or on other health
deficiency diseases, and can occur with or without
promoting necessities.
sufficient total calorie intake.
• Food security is a necessary condition for human
• Overweight and obesity, caused by overconsumption
well-being. Food security for any individual or
of calories, are associated with diets rich in energy
community is the outcome of four necessary
conditions being in place: food needs to be available dense food types, such as fats and sugars, and can
(physically obtainable), accessible (socially / contribute to Type 2 diabetes, heart disease, strokes
economically obtainable), utilisable (consumable / and some cancers. Their causes are multiple and
digestible) – and these three factors have to be stable complex, influenced by lifestyle, socioeconomic and
over time (reliable). genetic factors.
• Malnutrition has various forms: undernutrition; • As food systems become more globalised, countries
micronutrient deficiencies; and overconsumption. transition from localised food scarcity and hunger,
Some progress is being made on undernutrition; towards a state of over-consumption (which is where
micronutrient deficiencies are still widespread; and developed countries currently sit), then theoretically
over consumption and its attendant health concerns and optimistically, towards healthier and more
are worsening. sustainable diets.
© 2015 3
, Foodsource Chapter 7. How are food systems diets, and health connected?
GO TO
CONTENTS
7.1 How are food systems and health
connected and influenced?
7.1.1 Connections between food and health
Some of the links between food and health are shown below.
Health concern The food system’s role
Environmental health risks Different environmental health risks exist relating to
water and air pollution, in addition to risks to food
systems from climate change (see Chapter 6 for
climate change impacts on food systems). Manure
and agrochemicals cause water pollution which may
lead to acute poisoning and long term harms (e.g.
cancers, reproductive disorders); field burning and
intensive livestock systems cause air pollution and
respiratory illnesses; ecosystem damage and climate
change (to which food systems contribute) alters
patterns of disease and pest movements, leads to
loss of resilience, and reduced ability to adapt to
future climate shocks.
Food security, nutrition and Critical factors include the type and quantity of food
associated diseases produced, the way it is processed and marketed, its
price and availability, access to adequate storage and
cooking, and many other factors. These variously
give rise to: undernutrition (protein and/or energy
deficiencies); overconsumption (leading to obesity
and associated chronic diseases); and micronutrient
deficiencies.
Infectious diseases and Zoonotic diseases; food pathogens from livestock
injuries production or inadequate storage; antimicrobial
resistance especially from intensive livestock systems;
vector borne diseases from agri-induced land use
change and water infrastructure; pesticide and
agrochemical poisonings; occupational hazards
(heat stress, injuries, UV radiation, and other unsafe
working conditions).
Health equity impacts Health risks and benefits are unevenly distributed
among rich and poor, rural and urban, women and
men, land owners and the landless, arising from
factors such as affordability, access, time and
knowledge.
Table 1: Food and health are connected in many ways.
© 2015 4
