Y13 MEDIA REVISION CHECKLIST
Think of it like this:
● Media language = how media products are constructed
● Representation = how people, groups, places, and ideas are shown
● Audience = how people respond to media
● Industry = how media companies work and make money
AQA Media Studies: Simple Theory Guide
THEORIES & THEORISTS
SEMIOTICS
Semiotics is the study of signs and how media creates meaning.
A media product is full of signs:
- A red rose → Love
- A police uniform → Justice, protection
- Dark lightning → Scary and unsettling
- A crown → Royalty, monarchy
These things do not just exist on screen or on a page – they mean something. The media is sending
the audience little clues, and we (audience) decode those clues.
SIGN/SIGNIFIER/SIGNIFIED
This comes from semiotic theory.
● Sign = The whole thing
● Signifier = the physical form we see or hear
● Signified = the idea or meaning it creates
Example: A rose. The signifier is the rose image, and the signified is the representation of it; love,
romance, beauty. So the sign is not “just a flower”. It might suggest emotion or relationships.
DOMINANT SIGNIFIER
A dominant signifier is the sign that stands out the most and shapes meaning strongly.
Example: In the Gentlewoman (magazine cover), the celebrity’s face (Scarlett Johansson) is the
dominant signifier because it is the first thing you notice. Or in GQ with Robert Pattinson. It guides
the audience toward the main meaning.
ICON/INDEX/SYMBOL
These ideas are linked to Charles Peirce.
Icon: A sign that looks like what it represents
Example: A photo of a person or a drawing of a phone
→ It resembles the real thing.
Index: A sign that is directly connected to something.
Example: Smoke = fire // Footprints = Someone was there // Tears = Sadness // It points to a cause.
Symbol: A sign whose meaning is learned by society.
Example: A heart = love // A dove = Peace // A crown = Power // It only means because of culture
,ANCHORAGE
Means words help “fix” the meaning of an image. Sometimes an image can mean lots of things. A
caption, headline, slogan or voiceover tells us how to interpret it.
Example: A photo of a serious politician could mean; Powerful, worried, angry, thoughtful. But if the
headline says “A leader in crisis”, the words anchor the meaning toward danger or failure.
IDEOLOGY
Means a set of beliefs or values. Media texts often reflect ideologies about; Gender, Class, Race,
Success, Family, or Nationality.
Example: A film that suggests rich people are naturally more successful, it may reflect a capitalist
ideology.
SIGNIFICATION
Means the process of making meaning, so when you analyse a media product you are exploring how
signs create meaning.
DENOTATION/CONNOTATION/MYTH (ROLAND BARTHES)
He also explored how ordinary media signs can carry deeper cultural meanings.
● Denotation: The literal, obvious meaning.
Example: A photo shows a man wearing a suit
● Connotation: The suggested meaning
Example: A suit may connote; wealth, professionalism, authority or seriousness
● Myth: Barthes says media signs can build wider cultural messages that feel natural and
normal.
Example: A luxury car advert may not just sell a car, it may create the myth that success
equals expensive possessions. So myth is like a big cultural story hidden inside simple images.
NARRATOLOGY
How stories are structured. Media products often tell stories even if they are short: films, TV dramas,
music videos, adverts, video games and magazines too
DIEGESIS
Diegesis is everything that exists inside the story's world that the characters can see, hear, or touch.
Example: If a character turns on a radio and hears a song, that music is diegetic because it exists in
the story. If dramatic background music plays but the characters cannot hear it, it’s non-diegetic.
MASTERPLOTS
These are common story patterns that appear again and again. The media often present them as
new, but many stories reuse old patterns.
Examples: Rags to riches, Revenge, quest, romance, good vs evil
,VLADIMIR PROPP - CHARACTER TYPES
Propp studied stories and said they often use repeated character roles. Propp asks: What job does
each character do in the story?
Main ones include:
● Hero = main character
● Villain = causes harm or conflict
● Donor = gives help or an object
● Helper = supports the hero
● Princess = reward or person to be rescued
● Dispatcher = sends hero on mission
● False hero = seems good but is not
CAUSALITY
Means one event causes another event. A good narrative usually has a chain.
Example: A character lies → friend discovers truth → friendship breaks → revenge begins.
QUEST NARRATIVE
Is when a character goes on a journey to achieve something. The journey matters just as much as the
goal that could be anything.
Example: In “Blinded by the Lights” the protagonist wants to be like Bruce Springsteen and go to his
concert.
TODOROV - NARRATIVE STRUCTURE
He says stories often follow a pattern:
1. Equilibrium – things are normal
2. Disruption – something that goes wrong
3. Recognition – characters realise the problem
4. Repair – they try to fix it
5. New equilibrium – a new normal is created
STRUCTURALISM
Structuralism says meaning comes from structures and patterns, not just individual things. The idea
is that we understand things by comparing them with their opposite or by seeing the system they
belong to.
BINARY OPPOSITIONS (CLAUDE LEVI-STRAUSS)
He argued that stories are built around binary oppositions. The binary oppositions is a pair of
opposites: good vs evil // male - female // rich - poor // law - crime // black - white // order vs chaos
IDEOLOGICAL READINGS
This means looking at what values the text supports through its structure.
Example: If a text always presents wealth as desirable and poverty as failure, that is an ideological
reading.
, MYTHEME
A mytheme (basic unit of myth) is the smallest "chunk" of a story that carries meaning—usually a
specific character, action, or theme.
Example: Batman: Parents died in an alley. // Superman: Parents died on another planet. //
Mytheme: "The hero is an orphan."
DECONSTRUCTING A MEDIA TEXT
This means taking it apart to see:
● how meaning is built
● what oppositions it uses
● what assumptions it makes
● what ideology sits underneath it
So instead of just saying “what happens,” you ask: How has this meaning been created?
GENRE THEORY
Genre means type or category. These are; horror, romance, action, sci-fi, teen drama. Genres help
audiences know what to expect.
STEVE NEALE
His idea is: Genres depend on repetition and difference. This could mean media products repeat
familiar features, but they also add something slightly new so audiences stay interested.
CONVENTIONS AND RULES OF GENRES
Conventions are the common features of a genre. In horror there is suspense, shadows or danger. In
romance are love interests, emotional conflict or soft lightning. These conventions help audiences
recognise genre quickly.
SUB-GENRES AND HYBRID GENRES
Sub genres is a smaller category inside a genre. In horror it has slasher, supernatural or psychological.
A hybrid genre is when two or more genres are combined/mixed.
Example: Romantic comedy, action thriller or sci-fi horror.
GENRES OF ORDER AND INTEGRATION
This is the idea that some genres restore order, while others focus on bringing people together.
● Order: Genres like crime or detective stories often end with order restored.
● Integration: Genres like romance often end with relationships repaired or united.
Think of it like this:
● Media language = how media products are constructed
● Representation = how people, groups, places, and ideas are shown
● Audience = how people respond to media
● Industry = how media companies work and make money
AQA Media Studies: Simple Theory Guide
THEORIES & THEORISTS
SEMIOTICS
Semiotics is the study of signs and how media creates meaning.
A media product is full of signs:
- A red rose → Love
- A police uniform → Justice, protection
- Dark lightning → Scary and unsettling
- A crown → Royalty, monarchy
These things do not just exist on screen or on a page – they mean something. The media is sending
the audience little clues, and we (audience) decode those clues.
SIGN/SIGNIFIER/SIGNIFIED
This comes from semiotic theory.
● Sign = The whole thing
● Signifier = the physical form we see or hear
● Signified = the idea or meaning it creates
Example: A rose. The signifier is the rose image, and the signified is the representation of it; love,
romance, beauty. So the sign is not “just a flower”. It might suggest emotion or relationships.
DOMINANT SIGNIFIER
A dominant signifier is the sign that stands out the most and shapes meaning strongly.
Example: In the Gentlewoman (magazine cover), the celebrity’s face (Scarlett Johansson) is the
dominant signifier because it is the first thing you notice. Or in GQ with Robert Pattinson. It guides
the audience toward the main meaning.
ICON/INDEX/SYMBOL
These ideas are linked to Charles Peirce.
Icon: A sign that looks like what it represents
Example: A photo of a person or a drawing of a phone
→ It resembles the real thing.
Index: A sign that is directly connected to something.
Example: Smoke = fire // Footprints = Someone was there // Tears = Sadness // It points to a cause.
Symbol: A sign whose meaning is learned by society.
Example: A heart = love // A dove = Peace // A crown = Power // It only means because of culture
,ANCHORAGE
Means words help “fix” the meaning of an image. Sometimes an image can mean lots of things. A
caption, headline, slogan or voiceover tells us how to interpret it.
Example: A photo of a serious politician could mean; Powerful, worried, angry, thoughtful. But if the
headline says “A leader in crisis”, the words anchor the meaning toward danger or failure.
IDEOLOGY
Means a set of beliefs or values. Media texts often reflect ideologies about; Gender, Class, Race,
Success, Family, or Nationality.
Example: A film that suggests rich people are naturally more successful, it may reflect a capitalist
ideology.
SIGNIFICATION
Means the process of making meaning, so when you analyse a media product you are exploring how
signs create meaning.
DENOTATION/CONNOTATION/MYTH (ROLAND BARTHES)
He also explored how ordinary media signs can carry deeper cultural meanings.
● Denotation: The literal, obvious meaning.
Example: A photo shows a man wearing a suit
● Connotation: The suggested meaning
Example: A suit may connote; wealth, professionalism, authority or seriousness
● Myth: Barthes says media signs can build wider cultural messages that feel natural and
normal.
Example: A luxury car advert may not just sell a car, it may create the myth that success
equals expensive possessions. So myth is like a big cultural story hidden inside simple images.
NARRATOLOGY
How stories are structured. Media products often tell stories even if they are short: films, TV dramas,
music videos, adverts, video games and magazines too
DIEGESIS
Diegesis is everything that exists inside the story's world that the characters can see, hear, or touch.
Example: If a character turns on a radio and hears a song, that music is diegetic because it exists in
the story. If dramatic background music plays but the characters cannot hear it, it’s non-diegetic.
MASTERPLOTS
These are common story patterns that appear again and again. The media often present them as
new, but many stories reuse old patterns.
Examples: Rags to riches, Revenge, quest, romance, good vs evil
,VLADIMIR PROPP - CHARACTER TYPES
Propp studied stories and said they often use repeated character roles. Propp asks: What job does
each character do in the story?
Main ones include:
● Hero = main character
● Villain = causes harm or conflict
● Donor = gives help or an object
● Helper = supports the hero
● Princess = reward or person to be rescued
● Dispatcher = sends hero on mission
● False hero = seems good but is not
CAUSALITY
Means one event causes another event. A good narrative usually has a chain.
Example: A character lies → friend discovers truth → friendship breaks → revenge begins.
QUEST NARRATIVE
Is when a character goes on a journey to achieve something. The journey matters just as much as the
goal that could be anything.
Example: In “Blinded by the Lights” the protagonist wants to be like Bruce Springsteen and go to his
concert.
TODOROV - NARRATIVE STRUCTURE
He says stories often follow a pattern:
1. Equilibrium – things are normal
2. Disruption – something that goes wrong
3. Recognition – characters realise the problem
4. Repair – they try to fix it
5. New equilibrium – a new normal is created
STRUCTURALISM
Structuralism says meaning comes from structures and patterns, not just individual things. The idea
is that we understand things by comparing them with their opposite or by seeing the system they
belong to.
BINARY OPPOSITIONS (CLAUDE LEVI-STRAUSS)
He argued that stories are built around binary oppositions. The binary oppositions is a pair of
opposites: good vs evil // male - female // rich - poor // law - crime // black - white // order vs chaos
IDEOLOGICAL READINGS
This means looking at what values the text supports through its structure.
Example: If a text always presents wealth as desirable and poverty as failure, that is an ideological
reading.
, MYTHEME
A mytheme (basic unit of myth) is the smallest "chunk" of a story that carries meaning—usually a
specific character, action, or theme.
Example: Batman: Parents died in an alley. // Superman: Parents died on another planet. //
Mytheme: "The hero is an orphan."
DECONSTRUCTING A MEDIA TEXT
This means taking it apart to see:
● how meaning is built
● what oppositions it uses
● what assumptions it makes
● what ideology sits underneath it
So instead of just saying “what happens,” you ask: How has this meaning been created?
GENRE THEORY
Genre means type or category. These are; horror, romance, action, sci-fi, teen drama. Genres help
audiences know what to expect.
STEVE NEALE
His idea is: Genres depend on repetition and difference. This could mean media products repeat
familiar features, but they also add something slightly new so audiences stay interested.
CONVENTIONS AND RULES OF GENRES
Conventions are the common features of a genre. In horror there is suspense, shadows or danger. In
romance are love interests, emotional conflict or soft lightning. These conventions help audiences
recognise genre quickly.
SUB-GENRES AND HYBRID GENRES
Sub genres is a smaller category inside a genre. In horror it has slasher, supernatural or psychological.
A hybrid genre is when two or more genres are combined/mixed.
Example: Romantic comedy, action thriller or sci-fi horror.
GENRES OF ORDER AND INTEGRATION
This is the idea that some genres restore order, while others focus on bringing people together.
● Order: Genres like crime or detective stories often end with order restored.
● Integration: Genres like romance often end with relationships repaired or united.
