Solutions
Manual
,Craft, Gordon: Understanding Pathophysiology 4e
Australia and New Zealand edition
Answer Guide
Chapter 1: Introduction to Clinical Science
Focus on Learning Questions
Page 7
1. Describe the term pathophysiology and define the following commonly used related terms: signs,
symptoms, localised, systemic, disorder, disease, acute, chronic, insidious, incidence, prevalence,
morbidity, comorbidity and mortality.
Pathophysiology is defined as the study of changes to normal body function during disease processes.
Signs: these are objective measurements of body processes that may give evidence of a disease process; for
example, blood pressure measurement.
Symptoms: a subjective indication of a disease process that is only experienced by the patient and cannot be
measured; for example, pain or nausea.
Localised: a sign or symptom that is restricted to a particular area of the body; for example, chest pain.
Systemic: a sign or symptom that is experienced by the whole body; for example, fatigue.
Disorder: a disturbance of normal function within the body; for example, hypertension.
Disease: the characteristic or distinguishing features associated with a particular pathological condition. For
example, coronary heart disease can result in radiating pain down the left arm, which is an indication of a
blocked coronary artery that causes decreased blood supply and oxygen to the heart.
Acute: develops rapidly and lasts a short time.
Chronic: develops gradually and lasts for a long time.
Insidious: onset of disease that is gradual and does not display any signs or symptoms until the disease has
significantly progressed.
Incidence: the number of new cases of a disease that have been confirmed, usually within a 1-year period.
Prevalence: total number of people within a population who are affected by a disease at a particular time.
Morbidity: proportion of people within a population who are affected by a disease compared with people
without the disease; that is, rate of disease incidence.
Comorbidity: presence of another disease in addition to the primary disease; that is, coexisting diseases.
Mortality: number of deaths associated with a specific disease.
2. Describe the different age groups within a population.
Incidence of disease may affect one age group more than another; therefore, age groups within a population
are defined as infant (< 1 year of age), child (from 1 year of age to the onset of puberty), adolescent (onset
of puberty until adulthood), adult (onset of adulthood is defined as a fully matured person) and ageing (> 65
years of age).
Page 11
1. Describe the anatomical position.
The anatomical position is a reference position. The position is defined as a person standing upright, arms
by their sides with their palms facing forwards and their thumbs facing out. Refer to Figure 1.2, p 7.
2. Describe the orientation of the three main anatomical sections.
The three main anatomical sections are the:
• sagittal plane, which is a vertical plane that divides the body into a right and left
• transverse plan, which is a horizontal plan that divides the body into upper and lower
• frontal or coronal plan, which is a vertical plane that divides the body into front (ventral) and back
(dorsal). Refer to Figure 1.4, p 8.
3. Provide definitions of the six pairs of terms used in anatomy.
1. Superior: towards the head; for example, the forehead is superior to the chin.
Inferior: towards the feet; for example, the knees are inferior to the hips.
2. Anterior: towards the front (ventral); for example, the heart is anterior to the spine.
Posterior: towards the back (dorsal); for example, the spine is posterior to the lungs.
,2
Answer Guide
3. Medial: towards the midline; for example, the mediastinum is medial to the scapula.
Lateral: away from the midline; for example, the arm is lateral to the trunk.
4. Proximal: towards the point of attachment to the trunk; for example, the knee is proximal to the ankle.
Distal: away from the point of the attachment of the trunk; for example, fingers are distal to the elbow.
5. Superficial: towards the body surface; for example, the skin is superficial to the bone.
Deep: away from the body surface; for example, the heart is deep to the skin.
6. Central: towards the body, head and trunk; for example, the central nervous system.
Peripheral: towards the hands and feet; for example, the peripheral nervous system.
Refer to Figure 1.5, p. 9.
4. List the components of the body cavities.
The central part of the body (which is defined as the trunk) can be divided into the dorsal (back) and the
ventral (front) cavity and these cavities can be further subdivided. The dorsal cavity contains the central
nervous system (which is subdivided into the cranial cavity containing the skull and brain) and the spinal
cavity (which contains the spinal cord).
The ventral cavity contains most of the body’s internal organs and is further subdivided into the thoracic
cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity. The former contains the heart, lungs, trachea and oesophagus, and is
further subdivided into the mediastinum, which is located centrally, and the pleural cavities, which are
located peripherally. The abdominopelvic cavity is further subdivided into the abdominal cavity (containing
the stomach, intestines, pancreas, gallbladder, spleen, kidneys and adrenal glands) and the pelvic cavity (the
reproductive organs and urinary bladder).
5. Provide simple definitions for some commonly used anatomical prefixes and suffixes used in health
science.
Refer to Table 1.1, p. 10 for common prefixes and Table 1.2, p. 11 for common suffixes. The more common
examples of prefixes and suffixes include:
Prefixes
cardio- heart
endo- inner
hyper- excess
myo- muscl
e
nephro kidney
-
pulm- lung
Suffixes
-aemia in the blood
-ectomy cutting out
-itis inflammatio
n
-oma tumour
Page 12
1. Describe the hierarchy of the human body, starting at the smallest level.
The hierarchy of the human body categorises the smallest to the largest functional level in the body.
Chemistry: the smallest functional level in the body where atoms combine to form molecules that in turn
combine to form cell structures that go on to form whole cells.
Cells: vary in size and shape and can have some common functions. Similar cells associate together to
perform specific functions and make up tissues.
Tissues: groups of similar cells that perform similar functions.
Organs: groups of tissue that join together to perform specific and complex functions.
Organ systems: groups of organs that join together to perform specific and complex functions.
Human body: organ systems function collectively to achieve a well-functioning and healthy body.
2. Briefly describe the anatomy and physiology of each body system.
, 3
Answer Guide
• The nervous system is the fast-acting control system of the body responsible for sending, receiving and
processing nerve impulses. It is made up of the brain, spinal cord and nerves. The nervous system
responds to internal and external stimuli, stimulates muscle contraction and regulates all body
processes as well as personality, memory and emotion.
• The endocrine system is responsible for the production and secretion of hormones that regulate growth,
reproduction and metabolism in the body. The endocrine system is made up of organs, glands and cells.
• The immune system provides the main defence against pathogens, including bacteria and viruses, and
against cancer cells. It is made up of cells such as white blood cells found in the blood and tissues such
as lymphoid tissue that all coordinate to defend the body.
• The integumentary system forms the external coverings of the body and is made up of skin and mucous
membranes. It protects the body from external injury as well as being responsible for vitamin D
production and aids in the regulation of body temperature.
• The haematological system transports nutrients and wastes via the bloodstream and also works closely
with the immune system to protect the body against disease and foreign pathogens. It is made up of
blood and bone marrow and is also responsible for the production of all cells found in the bloodstream.
• The musculoskeletal system protects and supports the body’s organs as well as allowing the body to
move. It is made up of muscles and bones.
• The cardiovascular system pumps blood around the body, carrying nutrients and wastes. It is made up
of the heart and blood vessels.
• The respiratory system oxygenates and removes carbon dioxide from the blood and allows speech to
occur. It is made up of the respiratory tract (trachea) and the lungs.
• The digestive system breaks down food into absorbable material that enters the blood and supplies
nutrients to the body. It is made up of the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder and
pancreas.
• The urinary system removes nitrogenous wastes from the body as well as regulating water, electrolytes
and acid–base balance in the body. It is made up of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.
• The reproductive system is involved in the production of offspring. In males, it is made up of the testes,
prostate gland, ductus deferens and the penis. In females, it is made up of ovaries, uterine tube, uterus,
vagina and mammary glands.
It is important to note that the body systems work in cooperation to achieve their complex functions.
Page 16
1. List the main elements and electrolytes of the body.
An element is a structure that cannot be broken down further. There are four main elements in the human
body: carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O) and nitrogen (N).
Elements in the human body can either have an electrical charge (ion) or not have an electrical charge
(inert). Ions are extremely important in the human body and can be positively charged (cation, +) or
negatively charged (anion, –).
Electrolytes are substances that have the ability to conduct electricity in water. These electrolytes can be
detected in body fluids (e.g. blood and urine) and can give indications of imbalances in the body.
Electrolytes are measured in millimoles per litre (mmol/L). Main examples include sodium, potassium,
calcium and chloride.
Refer to Table 1.4, p. 13.
2. List common examples of molecules and compounds of the body.
Oxygen is a common molecule found in the human body. Water, carbon dioxide, glucose and sodium
bicarbonate are examples of common compounds.
3. Define the terms hydrophilic and hydrophobic.
Substances that mix well in water are called hydrophilic (hydro – water; philic – loving).
Substances that do not mix well in water are called hydrophobic (hydro – water; phobic – hating).
4. Compare acid and alkaline substances. Provide the pH levels that define acidosis and alkalosis.
Acids are substances that contain an H+ ion and release the H+ when mixed in water; for example,
hydrochloric acid (HCl). Alkaline substances take up the H+ ion released by an acid; for example,
bicarbonate (HCO3–).
To reflect the acidity or alkalinity of a substance, a pH scale is used. pH 0 is the strongest acid, pH 7 is
neutral and pH 14 is the strongest base (refer to Figure 1.9, p 15). The pH levels in the blood are kept within
Manual
,Craft, Gordon: Understanding Pathophysiology 4e
Australia and New Zealand edition
Answer Guide
Chapter 1: Introduction to Clinical Science
Focus on Learning Questions
Page 7
1. Describe the term pathophysiology and define the following commonly used related terms: signs,
symptoms, localised, systemic, disorder, disease, acute, chronic, insidious, incidence, prevalence,
morbidity, comorbidity and mortality.
Pathophysiology is defined as the study of changes to normal body function during disease processes.
Signs: these are objective measurements of body processes that may give evidence of a disease process; for
example, blood pressure measurement.
Symptoms: a subjective indication of a disease process that is only experienced by the patient and cannot be
measured; for example, pain or nausea.
Localised: a sign or symptom that is restricted to a particular area of the body; for example, chest pain.
Systemic: a sign or symptom that is experienced by the whole body; for example, fatigue.
Disorder: a disturbance of normal function within the body; for example, hypertension.
Disease: the characteristic or distinguishing features associated with a particular pathological condition. For
example, coronary heart disease can result in radiating pain down the left arm, which is an indication of a
blocked coronary artery that causes decreased blood supply and oxygen to the heart.
Acute: develops rapidly and lasts a short time.
Chronic: develops gradually and lasts for a long time.
Insidious: onset of disease that is gradual and does not display any signs or symptoms until the disease has
significantly progressed.
Incidence: the number of new cases of a disease that have been confirmed, usually within a 1-year period.
Prevalence: total number of people within a population who are affected by a disease at a particular time.
Morbidity: proportion of people within a population who are affected by a disease compared with people
without the disease; that is, rate of disease incidence.
Comorbidity: presence of another disease in addition to the primary disease; that is, coexisting diseases.
Mortality: number of deaths associated with a specific disease.
2. Describe the different age groups within a population.
Incidence of disease may affect one age group more than another; therefore, age groups within a population
are defined as infant (< 1 year of age), child (from 1 year of age to the onset of puberty), adolescent (onset
of puberty until adulthood), adult (onset of adulthood is defined as a fully matured person) and ageing (> 65
years of age).
Page 11
1. Describe the anatomical position.
The anatomical position is a reference position. The position is defined as a person standing upright, arms
by their sides with their palms facing forwards and their thumbs facing out. Refer to Figure 1.2, p 7.
2. Describe the orientation of the three main anatomical sections.
The three main anatomical sections are the:
• sagittal plane, which is a vertical plane that divides the body into a right and left
• transverse plan, which is a horizontal plan that divides the body into upper and lower
• frontal or coronal plan, which is a vertical plane that divides the body into front (ventral) and back
(dorsal). Refer to Figure 1.4, p 8.
3. Provide definitions of the six pairs of terms used in anatomy.
1. Superior: towards the head; for example, the forehead is superior to the chin.
Inferior: towards the feet; for example, the knees are inferior to the hips.
2. Anterior: towards the front (ventral); for example, the heart is anterior to the spine.
Posterior: towards the back (dorsal); for example, the spine is posterior to the lungs.
,2
Answer Guide
3. Medial: towards the midline; for example, the mediastinum is medial to the scapula.
Lateral: away from the midline; for example, the arm is lateral to the trunk.
4. Proximal: towards the point of attachment to the trunk; for example, the knee is proximal to the ankle.
Distal: away from the point of the attachment of the trunk; for example, fingers are distal to the elbow.
5. Superficial: towards the body surface; for example, the skin is superficial to the bone.
Deep: away from the body surface; for example, the heart is deep to the skin.
6. Central: towards the body, head and trunk; for example, the central nervous system.
Peripheral: towards the hands and feet; for example, the peripheral nervous system.
Refer to Figure 1.5, p. 9.
4. List the components of the body cavities.
The central part of the body (which is defined as the trunk) can be divided into the dorsal (back) and the
ventral (front) cavity and these cavities can be further subdivided. The dorsal cavity contains the central
nervous system (which is subdivided into the cranial cavity containing the skull and brain) and the spinal
cavity (which contains the spinal cord).
The ventral cavity contains most of the body’s internal organs and is further subdivided into the thoracic
cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity. The former contains the heart, lungs, trachea and oesophagus, and is
further subdivided into the mediastinum, which is located centrally, and the pleural cavities, which are
located peripherally. The abdominopelvic cavity is further subdivided into the abdominal cavity (containing
the stomach, intestines, pancreas, gallbladder, spleen, kidneys and adrenal glands) and the pelvic cavity (the
reproductive organs and urinary bladder).
5. Provide simple definitions for some commonly used anatomical prefixes and suffixes used in health
science.
Refer to Table 1.1, p. 10 for common prefixes and Table 1.2, p. 11 for common suffixes. The more common
examples of prefixes and suffixes include:
Prefixes
cardio- heart
endo- inner
hyper- excess
myo- muscl
e
nephro kidney
-
pulm- lung
Suffixes
-aemia in the blood
-ectomy cutting out
-itis inflammatio
n
-oma tumour
Page 12
1. Describe the hierarchy of the human body, starting at the smallest level.
The hierarchy of the human body categorises the smallest to the largest functional level in the body.
Chemistry: the smallest functional level in the body where atoms combine to form molecules that in turn
combine to form cell structures that go on to form whole cells.
Cells: vary in size and shape and can have some common functions. Similar cells associate together to
perform specific functions and make up tissues.
Tissues: groups of similar cells that perform similar functions.
Organs: groups of tissue that join together to perform specific and complex functions.
Organ systems: groups of organs that join together to perform specific and complex functions.
Human body: organ systems function collectively to achieve a well-functioning and healthy body.
2. Briefly describe the anatomy and physiology of each body system.
, 3
Answer Guide
• The nervous system is the fast-acting control system of the body responsible for sending, receiving and
processing nerve impulses. It is made up of the brain, spinal cord and nerves. The nervous system
responds to internal and external stimuli, stimulates muscle contraction and regulates all body
processes as well as personality, memory and emotion.
• The endocrine system is responsible for the production and secretion of hormones that regulate growth,
reproduction and metabolism in the body. The endocrine system is made up of organs, glands and cells.
• The immune system provides the main defence against pathogens, including bacteria and viruses, and
against cancer cells. It is made up of cells such as white blood cells found in the blood and tissues such
as lymphoid tissue that all coordinate to defend the body.
• The integumentary system forms the external coverings of the body and is made up of skin and mucous
membranes. It protects the body from external injury as well as being responsible for vitamin D
production and aids in the regulation of body temperature.
• The haematological system transports nutrients and wastes via the bloodstream and also works closely
with the immune system to protect the body against disease and foreign pathogens. It is made up of
blood and bone marrow and is also responsible for the production of all cells found in the bloodstream.
• The musculoskeletal system protects and supports the body’s organs as well as allowing the body to
move. It is made up of muscles and bones.
• The cardiovascular system pumps blood around the body, carrying nutrients and wastes. It is made up
of the heart and blood vessels.
• The respiratory system oxygenates and removes carbon dioxide from the blood and allows speech to
occur. It is made up of the respiratory tract (trachea) and the lungs.
• The digestive system breaks down food into absorbable material that enters the blood and supplies
nutrients to the body. It is made up of the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder and
pancreas.
• The urinary system removes nitrogenous wastes from the body as well as regulating water, electrolytes
and acid–base balance in the body. It is made up of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.
• The reproductive system is involved in the production of offspring. In males, it is made up of the testes,
prostate gland, ductus deferens and the penis. In females, it is made up of ovaries, uterine tube, uterus,
vagina and mammary glands.
It is important to note that the body systems work in cooperation to achieve their complex functions.
Page 16
1. List the main elements and electrolytes of the body.
An element is a structure that cannot be broken down further. There are four main elements in the human
body: carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O) and nitrogen (N).
Elements in the human body can either have an electrical charge (ion) or not have an electrical charge
(inert). Ions are extremely important in the human body and can be positively charged (cation, +) or
negatively charged (anion, –).
Electrolytes are substances that have the ability to conduct electricity in water. These electrolytes can be
detected in body fluids (e.g. blood and urine) and can give indications of imbalances in the body.
Electrolytes are measured in millimoles per litre (mmol/L). Main examples include sodium, potassium,
calcium and chloride.
Refer to Table 1.4, p. 13.
2. List common examples of molecules and compounds of the body.
Oxygen is a common molecule found in the human body. Water, carbon dioxide, glucose and sodium
bicarbonate are examples of common compounds.
3. Define the terms hydrophilic and hydrophobic.
Substances that mix well in water are called hydrophilic (hydro – water; philic – loving).
Substances that do not mix well in water are called hydrophobic (hydro – water; phobic – hating).
4. Compare acid and alkaline substances. Provide the pH levels that define acidosis and alkalosis.
Acids are substances that contain an H+ ion and release the H+ when mixed in water; for example,
hydrochloric acid (HCl). Alkaline substances take up the H+ ion released by an acid; for example,
bicarbonate (HCO3–).
To reflect the acidity or alkalinity of a substance, a pH scale is used. pH 0 is the strongest acid, pH 7 is
neutral and pH 14 is the strongest base (refer to Figure 1.9, p 15). The pH levels in the blood are kept within
