NSG 530 Exam 3 Study Guide
PATHO Modules 6,7 & 8
Gastrointestinal Anatomy and Physiology
One Long Tube: The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is a continuous tube extending from the mouth to
the anus, responsible for digestion and absorption of nutrients.
Pharynx:
● The pharynx is a muscular tube that serves both respiratory and digestive functions. It
guides food from the mouth to the esophagus.
● Passageway that connects the oral and nasal cavities to the larynx.
Gastrointestinal System Overview:
● The GI system consists of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and
large intestine.
o Small intestines → Hydrolyze (break down using water) peptides (proteins) into
free amino acids and smaller peptides Hydrolyzes sucrose into fructose and
glucose
- Breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose Hydrolyzes maltose into
glucose
- Stimulates gastric emptying Increases intestinal peristalsis
- Stimulates the gallbladder to release bile and the pancreas to secrete
enzymes
- Stimulates intestinal peristalsis
- Regulates intestinal motility Stimulates insulin secretion
- Inhibits gastric secretion and motility Inhibits water and electrolyte
absorption
o Stomach →
- Digests protein Kills bacteria * Digests protein * Digests fat * Aids in
absorption of vitamin B12 in the small intestine * Protects stomach lining
, * Aids in triggering hydrochloric acid production * Stimulates appetite
Inhibits gastrin and histamine release Inhibits motility
-
● Each part of the GI tract plays a specific role in the digestion and absorption of nutrients.
Accessory Glands:
● Liver: o Produces bile, which helps in the digestion and absorption of fats.
o Detoxifies blood of chemicals and metabolizes drugs. o Stores glycogen and
produces proteins important for blood clotting. o Metabolize medications to
prepare them for excretion o Metabolize carbohydrates, protein, and fats
o Synthesize glucose, protein (albumin), cholesterol, triglycerides, and clotting
factors
o ]Store glucose (glycogen), fats (lipids), and micronutrients (e.g., iron, copper, and
vitamin B12) and release them when needed
o
● Gallbladder: digests fats o Stores and concentrates bile produced by the liver. o
Releases bile into the small intestine to aid in fat digestion.
● Pancreas:
o Produces digestive enzymes and bicarbonate, which are released into the small
intestine to aid in digestion. o Produces insulin and glucagon to regulate blood
sugar levels.
Gastrointestinal Dysfunction
Changes Associated with Aging:
● Slower motility and decreased digestive enzyme production.
● Increased risk of GI conditions like constipation, diverticulosis, and colorectal cancer.
Understanding Gastrointestinal Conditions:
1. Cleft Lip and Palate: symptoms, cause, complications, treatments
○ Congenital defects occur when the lip and/or palate do not form properly during
fetal development.
○ Cleft lip → results from failure of the maxillary processes and upper lip to fuse
during development. (opening in lips)
○ A cleft palate → results from the failure of the hard and soft palates to fuse in
development, creating an opening between the oral and nasal cavities.
(opening in the roof of the mouth)
, ○
■ teeth and nose malformations may be present.
develop between the 4th to 7th weeks of gestation and are multifactorial in
origin → involve a combination of environmental and hereditary factors.
○ Symptoms:
○ Cause → Associated with → genetic mutations, maternal diabetes, drugs (e.g.,
anticonvulsants), toxins, viruses, vitamin deficiencies (e.g., folate), alcohol, and
cigarette smoking.
■ increases the risk of having a second child with this condition.
■ Males are twice as likely as females to have a cleft lip.
■ Females, however, are twice as likely as males to have a cleft palate.
○ Complications → feeding issues, speech problems, ear infections (otitis media),
and hearing problems.
○ TX → Cleft lip repair is recommended before age 3 months, and cleft palate repair
is recommended by 18 months
- temporary measures (e.g., special nipples or dental appliances) until
surgical procedures
○ Important → Having one child with an oral cleft increases the risk of having a
second child with this condition.
- should be repaired before age 3 months
2. Pyloric Stenosis: symptoms, cause, complications, treatments,
○ AKA Infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis
○ A condition in infants where the pylorus muscle thickens, causing obstruction and
preventing food from entering the small intestine.
○ The pyloric sphincter muscle fibers become thick and stiff
○ can be present at birth, or it may develop later in life (rarely in children older than
6 months).
■ Most cases present at approximately 3 weeks of life.
○ Cause → unknown
■ Proposed mechanisms → a lack of neuronal nitric oxide synthase, abnormal
innervation of the muscular layer, and hypergastrinemia, recent exposure
to macrolides in early infancy, use of azithromycin and erythromycin in
infants, Other risk factors may include prematurity, maternal smoking
during pregnancy, and bottle feeding.
○ Clinical manifestations → usually appear within several weeks after birth.
■ the first symptom → hard olive-shaped mass in the abdomen (right upper
quadrant), projectile vomiting after every feeding, sometimes with
hematemesis being noted) is usually the first symptom.
■ persistent hunger, regurgitation, irritability, belching, stomach contractions,
abdominal pain, dehydration, jaundice
, ○ Treatment → Surgical repair called “pyloromyotomy” is recommended to open
the sphincter, but balloon dilation may be used in high-surgical-risk infants.
3. Dysphagia: symptoms, cause, complications, treatments
PATHO Modules 6,7 & 8
Gastrointestinal Anatomy and Physiology
One Long Tube: The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is a continuous tube extending from the mouth to
the anus, responsible for digestion and absorption of nutrients.
Pharynx:
● The pharynx is a muscular tube that serves both respiratory and digestive functions. It
guides food from the mouth to the esophagus.
● Passageway that connects the oral and nasal cavities to the larynx.
Gastrointestinal System Overview:
● The GI system consists of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and
large intestine.
o Small intestines → Hydrolyze (break down using water) peptides (proteins) into
free amino acids and smaller peptides Hydrolyzes sucrose into fructose and
glucose
- Breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose Hydrolyzes maltose into
glucose
- Stimulates gastric emptying Increases intestinal peristalsis
- Stimulates the gallbladder to release bile and the pancreas to secrete
enzymes
- Stimulates intestinal peristalsis
- Regulates intestinal motility Stimulates insulin secretion
- Inhibits gastric secretion and motility Inhibits water and electrolyte
absorption
o Stomach →
- Digests protein Kills bacteria * Digests protein * Digests fat * Aids in
absorption of vitamin B12 in the small intestine * Protects stomach lining
, * Aids in triggering hydrochloric acid production * Stimulates appetite
Inhibits gastrin and histamine release Inhibits motility
-
● Each part of the GI tract plays a specific role in the digestion and absorption of nutrients.
Accessory Glands:
● Liver: o Produces bile, which helps in the digestion and absorption of fats.
o Detoxifies blood of chemicals and metabolizes drugs. o Stores glycogen and
produces proteins important for blood clotting. o Metabolize medications to
prepare them for excretion o Metabolize carbohydrates, protein, and fats
o Synthesize glucose, protein (albumin), cholesterol, triglycerides, and clotting
factors
o ]Store glucose (glycogen), fats (lipids), and micronutrients (e.g., iron, copper, and
vitamin B12) and release them when needed
o
● Gallbladder: digests fats o Stores and concentrates bile produced by the liver. o
Releases bile into the small intestine to aid in fat digestion.
● Pancreas:
o Produces digestive enzymes and bicarbonate, which are released into the small
intestine to aid in digestion. o Produces insulin and glucagon to regulate blood
sugar levels.
Gastrointestinal Dysfunction
Changes Associated with Aging:
● Slower motility and decreased digestive enzyme production.
● Increased risk of GI conditions like constipation, diverticulosis, and colorectal cancer.
Understanding Gastrointestinal Conditions:
1. Cleft Lip and Palate: symptoms, cause, complications, treatments
○ Congenital defects occur when the lip and/or palate do not form properly during
fetal development.
○ Cleft lip → results from failure of the maxillary processes and upper lip to fuse
during development. (opening in lips)
○ A cleft palate → results from the failure of the hard and soft palates to fuse in
development, creating an opening between the oral and nasal cavities.
(opening in the roof of the mouth)
, ○
■ teeth and nose malformations may be present.
develop between the 4th to 7th weeks of gestation and are multifactorial in
origin → involve a combination of environmental and hereditary factors.
○ Symptoms:
○ Cause → Associated with → genetic mutations, maternal diabetes, drugs (e.g.,
anticonvulsants), toxins, viruses, vitamin deficiencies (e.g., folate), alcohol, and
cigarette smoking.
■ increases the risk of having a second child with this condition.
■ Males are twice as likely as females to have a cleft lip.
■ Females, however, are twice as likely as males to have a cleft palate.
○ Complications → feeding issues, speech problems, ear infections (otitis media),
and hearing problems.
○ TX → Cleft lip repair is recommended before age 3 months, and cleft palate repair
is recommended by 18 months
- temporary measures (e.g., special nipples or dental appliances) until
surgical procedures
○ Important → Having one child with an oral cleft increases the risk of having a
second child with this condition.
- should be repaired before age 3 months
2. Pyloric Stenosis: symptoms, cause, complications, treatments,
○ AKA Infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis
○ A condition in infants where the pylorus muscle thickens, causing obstruction and
preventing food from entering the small intestine.
○ The pyloric sphincter muscle fibers become thick and stiff
○ can be present at birth, or it may develop later in life (rarely in children older than
6 months).
■ Most cases present at approximately 3 weeks of life.
○ Cause → unknown
■ Proposed mechanisms → a lack of neuronal nitric oxide synthase, abnormal
innervation of the muscular layer, and hypergastrinemia, recent exposure
to macrolides in early infancy, use of azithromycin and erythromycin in
infants, Other risk factors may include prematurity, maternal smoking
during pregnancy, and bottle feeding.
○ Clinical manifestations → usually appear within several weeks after birth.
■ the first symptom → hard olive-shaped mass in the abdomen (right upper
quadrant), projectile vomiting after every feeding, sometimes with
hematemesis being noted) is usually the first symptom.
■ persistent hunger, regurgitation, irritability, belching, stomach contractions,
abdominal pain, dehydration, jaundice
, ○ Treatment → Surgical repair called “pyloromyotomy” is recommended to open
the sphincter, but balloon dilation may be used in high-surgical-risk infants.
3. Dysphagia: symptoms, cause, complications, treatments
