HLST 210 FINAL EXAM QUESTIONS AND
ANSWERS 100% PASS.
1 . Knowing the world, how did it begin ? - ANS -Australopithecus (small-brained bipedal
hominid primates, 4 - 1 mio years ago)
What did the Australopithecines know? How did they communicate? - ANS -They were able
to walk upright and eat
- Australopithecus afarensis communicated through gestures and vocalizations. They had small
brains compared to humans, so their communications were more like chimpanzees than
humans
What are the ingredients to know your self in the world? - ANS 1) Memory: Remember the
past, know the present, imagine the future
2) Know thy self
Western Philosophies and Theories of Research
Part 1: Positivism/ Post-positivism Paradigm - ANS 1) Big Assumption / Positivism
2) Empiricists
2026 STUDY MATERIAL @COPYRIGHT RESERVED 1
,3) Post-positivism
4) Ontology
5) Epistemology
6) Axiology
7) Methodology
1) Big Assumption / Positivism - ANS -there is a real world outside of us, made of matter, and
we can find out everything about it (Positivism)
- It is run by natural laws that exist in nature, that were there before human beings, and will
continue to exist after human life. Humans just need to find these natural laws. These laws are
nothing that humans make up. - These laws exist independent of human minds.
- These laws can be uncovered, observed, measured, and proven. A natural law is true and only
true if it is true in every place of the earth and the universe.
2) Empiricists - ANS believe that we access the world starting inductively from our senses
(e.g., seeing). Then we try to generalize our knowledge and find regularities in it. We test this
developing body of knowledge by trying to find regularities by deducing hypotheses and testing
if the are true or false.
3) Post-positivism - ANS there is a real world out there
- BUT human minds can err. There will always be uncertainty - except for the Big Assumption
that a real world is out there. So we should continue to use scientific methods.
4) Ontology - ANS • What is the world like?
2026 STUDY MATERIAL @COPYRIGHT RESERVED 2
,• For a positivist, the world exists without a doubt. It can be known and measured. The world
exists independent of the human mind. All human minds are able to perceive the world in the
same way if humans are objective. • Postpositivists are certain that there is a real world but not
as certain that humans can perfectly measure it. But humans should not give up.
5) Epistemology - ANS • The ways/methods how we get to know the world
• Positivists want to measure the world in all kinds of ways, using the scientific method. They
can use observation, description (weight, height, etc.), quantitative surveys ("on a scale of 1 - 7,
how much do you like . . ."), correlation (e.g., height and weight), or the gold standard,
experiments ("does nicotine use cause more car accidents"). This can lead to the discovery of
laws.
• Post-positivists are not so sure about objectivity.
6) Axiology - ANS -Values
- Positivists believe that research must be completely value free, neutral and objective.
- Post-positivists acknowledge that your values can influence your research.
7) Methodology - ANS • In post/positivism, the purpose of research is to take some
observations, come up with a hypothesis, test the hypothesis, prove or disprove it, and if you
confirm it, build a theory.
• You define dependent and independent variables operationally (how you use, measure, or
observe the variables in your research study.
Positivism/Postpositivism Paradigm (cont.)• Sample Experiment: - ANS -Does nicotine
increase accidents when driving?
2026 STUDY MATERIAL @COPYRIGHT RESERVED 3
, • Say, you have heard that nicotine in cigarette smoking improves your reaction time on simple
tasks. Maybe your hypothesis is that nicotine has the opposite effect when the task is complex
• Say, you also hard that drivers who smoke have more care accidents than those who don't
smoke. But what is the cause?
• Are smokers generally at greater risk, getting cancer, or trying to beat a red light? Or is it that
you are distracted by fiddling with your cigarette lighter?
• Simulator experiment. Half will have a cigarette; other half not. Which group will have more
accidents?
• Independent variable (the one you vary): use or non-use of nicotine. Everything else will be
the same for everybody
• Dependent variable (the change that we want to measure: here, # of accidents
• Experimental condition (use nicotine); control condition (no nicotine)
• Random assignment - or give cigarettes and placebo; single-blind, double-blind
Western Philosophies and Theories of Research:
Part 2: Interpretive Paradigm - ANS 1) Interpretation
2) Phenomenology
3) Hermeneutics
4) Ontology
2026 STUDY MATERIAL @COPYRIGHT RESERVED 4
ANSWERS 100% PASS.
1 . Knowing the world, how did it begin ? - ANS -Australopithecus (small-brained bipedal
hominid primates, 4 - 1 mio years ago)
What did the Australopithecines know? How did they communicate? - ANS -They were able
to walk upright and eat
- Australopithecus afarensis communicated through gestures and vocalizations. They had small
brains compared to humans, so their communications were more like chimpanzees than
humans
What are the ingredients to know your self in the world? - ANS 1) Memory: Remember the
past, know the present, imagine the future
2) Know thy self
Western Philosophies and Theories of Research
Part 1: Positivism/ Post-positivism Paradigm - ANS 1) Big Assumption / Positivism
2) Empiricists
2026 STUDY MATERIAL @COPYRIGHT RESERVED 1
,3) Post-positivism
4) Ontology
5) Epistemology
6) Axiology
7) Methodology
1) Big Assumption / Positivism - ANS -there is a real world outside of us, made of matter, and
we can find out everything about it (Positivism)
- It is run by natural laws that exist in nature, that were there before human beings, and will
continue to exist after human life. Humans just need to find these natural laws. These laws are
nothing that humans make up. - These laws exist independent of human minds.
- These laws can be uncovered, observed, measured, and proven. A natural law is true and only
true if it is true in every place of the earth and the universe.
2) Empiricists - ANS believe that we access the world starting inductively from our senses
(e.g., seeing). Then we try to generalize our knowledge and find regularities in it. We test this
developing body of knowledge by trying to find regularities by deducing hypotheses and testing
if the are true or false.
3) Post-positivism - ANS there is a real world out there
- BUT human minds can err. There will always be uncertainty - except for the Big Assumption
that a real world is out there. So we should continue to use scientific methods.
4) Ontology - ANS • What is the world like?
2026 STUDY MATERIAL @COPYRIGHT RESERVED 2
,• For a positivist, the world exists without a doubt. It can be known and measured. The world
exists independent of the human mind. All human minds are able to perceive the world in the
same way if humans are objective. • Postpositivists are certain that there is a real world but not
as certain that humans can perfectly measure it. But humans should not give up.
5) Epistemology - ANS • The ways/methods how we get to know the world
• Positivists want to measure the world in all kinds of ways, using the scientific method. They
can use observation, description (weight, height, etc.), quantitative surveys ("on a scale of 1 - 7,
how much do you like . . ."), correlation (e.g., height and weight), or the gold standard,
experiments ("does nicotine use cause more car accidents"). This can lead to the discovery of
laws.
• Post-positivists are not so sure about objectivity.
6) Axiology - ANS -Values
- Positivists believe that research must be completely value free, neutral and objective.
- Post-positivists acknowledge that your values can influence your research.
7) Methodology - ANS • In post/positivism, the purpose of research is to take some
observations, come up with a hypothesis, test the hypothesis, prove or disprove it, and if you
confirm it, build a theory.
• You define dependent and independent variables operationally (how you use, measure, or
observe the variables in your research study.
Positivism/Postpositivism Paradigm (cont.)• Sample Experiment: - ANS -Does nicotine
increase accidents when driving?
2026 STUDY MATERIAL @COPYRIGHT RESERVED 3
, • Say, you have heard that nicotine in cigarette smoking improves your reaction time on simple
tasks. Maybe your hypothesis is that nicotine has the opposite effect when the task is complex
• Say, you also hard that drivers who smoke have more care accidents than those who don't
smoke. But what is the cause?
• Are smokers generally at greater risk, getting cancer, or trying to beat a red light? Or is it that
you are distracted by fiddling with your cigarette lighter?
• Simulator experiment. Half will have a cigarette; other half not. Which group will have more
accidents?
• Independent variable (the one you vary): use or non-use of nicotine. Everything else will be
the same for everybody
• Dependent variable (the change that we want to measure: here, # of accidents
• Experimental condition (use nicotine); control condition (no nicotine)
• Random assignment - or give cigarettes and placebo; single-blind, double-blind
Western Philosophies and Theories of Research:
Part 2: Interpretive Paradigm - ANS 1) Interpretation
2) Phenomenology
3) Hermeneutics
4) Ontology
2026 STUDY MATERIAL @COPYRIGHT RESERVED 4
