PNB 2265 EXAM | COMPLETE STUDY
GUIDE 2026 | VERIFIED ANSWERS | 100%
CORRECT | GRADED A+| PASS
GUARANTEED
Why do valves open and close? - ANSWER Valves are opened and closed by
pressure gradients between two adjacent compartments within the heart
cardiac cycle - ANSWER describes the movement of blood into and out of the
heart based upon the pressure gradients that develop between the different
chambers of the heart and between those chambers and the vessels
systole - ANSWER contraction phase
distole - ANSWER relaxation phase
stroke volume (SV) - ANSWER amount of blood ejected from the ventricle
stroke volume equation - ANSWER stroke volume (SV) = end diastolic volume
(EDV) - end systolic volume (ESV)
end diastolic volume (EDV) - ANSWER amount of blood in the ventricle
following atrial systole
, end systolic volume (ESV) - ANSWER blood remaining in the ventricle
following isometric contraction
cardiac output equation - ANSWER cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate
average cardiac output - ANSWER 6L/minutes
- can be changed
- variations in heart rate or stroke volume change cardiac output
Intrinsic regulation of cardiac output - ANSWER Frank Starling Law
intrinsic factors - ANSWER property of contractile cells themselves
Frank Starling Law - ANSWER - The more blood that gets returned to the
heart, the more blood is going to come out of the heart
- When more blood is returned to the heart, then the pressure builds up inside the
ventricles and causes the cardiac myocytes to stretch to their optimal resting length
- At optimal resting length, they can generate more force when they contract
extrinsic regulation of cardiac output - ANSWER - impacts both stroke volume
and heart rate
- autonomic nervous system and endocrine system
- important for blood pressure
,Primary Immune Response - ANSWER Selective proliferation of a clone
How are B Cells Activated? - ANSWER Antigen binds to specific receptors on
cell membranes of B cells OR (most common) by helper T cells!
Helper T Cell Activation of B Cells - ANSWER T-dependent antigens can only
activate B cells that have been stimulated by cytokines released by helper T cells
B CELLS CAN ONLY BE ACTIVATED BY CERTAIN ANTIGENS IF
CYTOKINES FROM HELPER T CELLS INITIATE THE PROCESS (IL-2 IS
NEEDED AND ONLY PRODUCED BY THE ACTIVATION)
Do Antibodies Destroy Anything? - ANSWER NO, it is simply a tagging
mechanism (no effector mechanism)
Effector Mechanism - ANSWER The mechanism that actually destroys the
foreign particle
Bronchioles - ANSWER CAN constrict/dilate, get smaller and smaller until the
terminal bronchioles, and then the conducting zone ends
Terminal Bronchioles - ANSWER End of the conducting zone, leads into the
respiratory zone, no cilia present
Cartilage Transition - ANSWER Rings in trachea, none in bronchioles
, Epithelium Transition - ANSWER From pseudo-stratified columnar in the
trachea to cuboidal in bronchioles
Smooth Muscle Transition - ANSWER Amount increases going through the
conducting zone, most in bronchioles (bronchiodilation/ bronchioconstriction)
Alveoli are made up of - ANSWER Alveolar ducts and alveolar sacs
Alveolar Ducts - ANSWER Major sites of gas exchange
Alveolar Sacs - ANSWER Terminal clusters of alveoli, which are the actual
sites of gas exchange
contractile cells - ANSWER contractile myocytes (atria and ventricles)
Sinoatrial node - ANSWER - "pacemaker"
- made of pacemaker cells
upper right part of the right atrium
pacemaker cells - ANSWER - set pace for the electrical activity
- autorhythmic (80-100 spikes/min)
GUIDE 2026 | VERIFIED ANSWERS | 100%
CORRECT | GRADED A+| PASS
GUARANTEED
Why do valves open and close? - ANSWER Valves are opened and closed by
pressure gradients between two adjacent compartments within the heart
cardiac cycle - ANSWER describes the movement of blood into and out of the
heart based upon the pressure gradients that develop between the different
chambers of the heart and between those chambers and the vessels
systole - ANSWER contraction phase
distole - ANSWER relaxation phase
stroke volume (SV) - ANSWER amount of blood ejected from the ventricle
stroke volume equation - ANSWER stroke volume (SV) = end diastolic volume
(EDV) - end systolic volume (ESV)
end diastolic volume (EDV) - ANSWER amount of blood in the ventricle
following atrial systole
, end systolic volume (ESV) - ANSWER blood remaining in the ventricle
following isometric contraction
cardiac output equation - ANSWER cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate
average cardiac output - ANSWER 6L/minutes
- can be changed
- variations in heart rate or stroke volume change cardiac output
Intrinsic regulation of cardiac output - ANSWER Frank Starling Law
intrinsic factors - ANSWER property of contractile cells themselves
Frank Starling Law - ANSWER - The more blood that gets returned to the
heart, the more blood is going to come out of the heart
- When more blood is returned to the heart, then the pressure builds up inside the
ventricles and causes the cardiac myocytes to stretch to their optimal resting length
- At optimal resting length, they can generate more force when they contract
extrinsic regulation of cardiac output - ANSWER - impacts both stroke volume
and heart rate
- autonomic nervous system and endocrine system
- important for blood pressure
,Primary Immune Response - ANSWER Selective proliferation of a clone
How are B Cells Activated? - ANSWER Antigen binds to specific receptors on
cell membranes of B cells OR (most common) by helper T cells!
Helper T Cell Activation of B Cells - ANSWER T-dependent antigens can only
activate B cells that have been stimulated by cytokines released by helper T cells
B CELLS CAN ONLY BE ACTIVATED BY CERTAIN ANTIGENS IF
CYTOKINES FROM HELPER T CELLS INITIATE THE PROCESS (IL-2 IS
NEEDED AND ONLY PRODUCED BY THE ACTIVATION)
Do Antibodies Destroy Anything? - ANSWER NO, it is simply a tagging
mechanism (no effector mechanism)
Effector Mechanism - ANSWER The mechanism that actually destroys the
foreign particle
Bronchioles - ANSWER CAN constrict/dilate, get smaller and smaller until the
terminal bronchioles, and then the conducting zone ends
Terminal Bronchioles - ANSWER End of the conducting zone, leads into the
respiratory zone, no cilia present
Cartilage Transition - ANSWER Rings in trachea, none in bronchioles
, Epithelium Transition - ANSWER From pseudo-stratified columnar in the
trachea to cuboidal in bronchioles
Smooth Muscle Transition - ANSWER Amount increases going through the
conducting zone, most in bronchioles (bronchiodilation/ bronchioconstriction)
Alveoli are made up of - ANSWER Alveolar ducts and alveolar sacs
Alveolar Ducts - ANSWER Major sites of gas exchange
Alveolar Sacs - ANSWER Terminal clusters of alveoli, which are the actual
sites of gas exchange
contractile cells - ANSWER contractile myocytes (atria and ventricles)
Sinoatrial node - ANSWER - "pacemaker"
- made of pacemaker cells
upper right part of the right atrium
pacemaker cells - ANSWER - set pace for the electrical activity
- autorhythmic (80-100 spikes/min)
