CULTURELE PSYCHOLOGIE
Jaar 1- semester 1 – blok 1
MODULE 1
1.1: WHAT IS CULTURE?
Mensen zijn zoals alle anderen, zoals sommige anderen, en zoals niemand
Culture: “unique meaning and information system, shared by a group and transmitted
across generations, that allows the group to meet basic needs of survival, pursue
happiness and well-being, and derive meaning from life”
en; een bril waar we constant door kijken wat ons helpt met het evalueren en
organiseren van informatie
WEIRD: western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic
Dit is waar psychologisch onderzoek op is gebaseerd
Dit is niet representatief voor de mensheid (representeert slechts 12%)
Toekomst:
Er is meer groei in cross cultureel psychologisch onderzoek
Tijdschriften erkennen de behoefte voor betere steekproeven
ONTWIKKELING VAN CULTUUR
De ontwikkeling van een cultuur gaat stap voor stap
Omgeving komt met eisen voor aanpassing: klimaat, resources, bevolkingsdichtheid
Origine van een cultuur: afhankelijk van omgevingsstressoren en welvaart
Latitudinale psychologie: afstand van de evenaar kan levels van psychologische
variabelen als creativiteit, agressie, levenstevredenheid, individualisme,
vertrouwen en suïcidaliteit van een land voorspellen
VERSCHILLENDE GROETEN TUSSEN CULTUREN
Absolutisme: psychologie is overal hetzelfde
Relativisme: onderliggende processen verschillen
Universalisme: onderliggende processen zijn hetzelfde, maar de expressie ervan
verschilt
Etics: universele psychologische processen of gedrag
Emics: cultuur-specifieke psychologische processen of gedrag
KEY TERMS
Maatschappij cultuur
Maatschappij: structuren/relaties van individuen
Cultuur: waarde van structuren/relaties
Land cultuur
Ras: meer een sociaal construct dan een biologische essentie
verschillen in ras zijn niet belangrijk voor wetenschappelijke of praktische
doeleinden zonder een duidelijk begrip van onderliggende oorzaken van de
geobserveerde verschillen en gelijkenissen
,Etniciteit: groep gekarakteriseerd door een gemeenschappelijke nationaliteit,
geografische afkomst, cultuur of taal
1.2: CONTENT OF CULTURE
Objectieve elementen: kunst/massa media/architectuur/kleding
Subjectieve elementen: dingen die je niet direct kan observeren, bijv. normen en
waarden
CULTURELE WAARDEN
Hofstede: differentieerde 4 verschillende dimensies van werk gerelateerde waardes;
1. Kracht afstand
2. Individualisme/collectivisme: de mate waarin groepen de neiging om voor
zichzelf en nabije familie te zorgen aanmoedigen, of juist te zorgen voor in-
groepen in ruil voor loyaliteit
3. Mannelijkheid/vrouwelijkheid
4. Onzekerheid vermijding
Later toegevoegd; langdurige/kortdurige oriëntatie en mildheid
Independence & interdependence: het “zelf” verschilt tussen culturen, in
individualistische culturen staat het zelf los van bijv. je moeder, in collectivistische
culturen overlapt je zelf met anderen
CULTURELE GELOVEN
Social axioms: algemene geloven over jezelf, de sociale en fysieke omgeving en de
spirituele omgeving; beweringen over de associatie tussen 2 of meer
entiteiten/concepten
Dynamische externaliteit: geloven in externe krachten zoals het lot, opperwezen en
spiritualiteit
Sociaal cynisme: vrees of pessimisme over de wereld
CULTURELE NORMEN
Nauwe samenleving: samenlevingen gevormd door een hoge mate van ecologische en
historische bedreigingen; sterke normen, lage tolerantie voor afwijkend gedrag,
mensen hierin doen meer aan zelfregulatie en monitoring
Losse samenleving: zwakke normen, hoge tolerantie voor afwijkend gedrag
MODULE 2
2.1: METHODS IN CROSS CULTURAL RESEARCH
Types of studies:
Exploratory studies: examines the existence of cross-cultural similarities or differences
Strength: broad scope for identifying similarities and differences
Weakness: limited capability to solve the causes of differences
Hypothesis-testing studies: examines why cultural differences exist
Inferences promote cross-cultural biases and inequivalence
,Structure-oriented studies: comparison of a culture’s constructs, structures, or
relationships among constructs with those of another culture
Levels of studies:
Individual-level studies: individual participants provide data and are the unit of
analysis
Ecological studies: countries or cultures are the units of analysis
Multilevel studies: involve data collection at multiple levels of analysis
(individual/group/culture)
Distinguishing levels is important;
Isomorphism: things have the same form; is not always a given > relationships
between variables may not be the same at different levels
Linkage studies: studies that try to assess an aspect of culture that is hypothesized to
produce cultural differences and then empirically link this measured aspect of
culture with the dependent variable of interest
Unpackaging studies: separate the contents of the global, unspecific concept of
culture into specific, measurable psychological constructs and examine their
contribution to cultural differences > lots of contextual information is important
Experiments: creating conditions to establish cause-effect relationships and
participants are randomly assigned to conditions and results are compared
between these conditions
o Priming studies: experimentally manipulating the mindsets of
participants and measuring the resulting changes in behaviour
o Behavioural studies: manipulations of environments and then observe
changes in behaviour > using an external mechanism that rewards specific
types of behaviour
2.2: BIAS AND EQUIVALENCE
Bias: differences that do not have the same meaning within and across cultures
if bias exists in cross-cultural comparative studies, the comparison loses meaning
Equivalence: state or condition of similarity in conceptual meaning and empirical
method between cultures – allows comparisons to be meaningful
Psychometric equivalence: ascertained by examining the internal reliability of the
measures across cultures
Types of bias:
Construct bias: are constructs defined in the same way across cultures?
o Model bias: do the theoretical framework and hypotheses being tested
mean the same thing in the cultures being tested?
Method bias: are our measurements working in the same way across different
cultures?
o Linguistic bias: are the research protocols semantically equivalent across
the languages used in the study? forward/backward translation (English
dutch English)
o Response bias: do people of the different cultures have different
tendencies to respond to questions? (extreme responding, middle
responding)
, o Measurement bias: are the specific measures, tests or instruments used
to collect data in different cultures equally valid and reliable across those
cultures?
o Sampling bias: are the samples in the cultures tested appropriate
representatives of their culture and equivalent to each other?
o Procedural bias: do the procedures by which data are collected mean the
same in all cultures tested? (interviewer effects)
Interpretational bias: are statistically significant findings practically
meaningful?
Are the interpretations made about the findings and conclusions drawn
biased in some way?
Are interpretations about cultural sources of differences justified by data?
Poortinga: how to deal with bias/non-equivalence:
Ignoring the non-equivalence; not good
Precluding comparison; pause and take a step back
Interpreting the non-equivalence
Reducing the non-equivalence in the data; statistical techniques
Types of studies:
Method validation studies/cross-cultural validation studies: test whether the very
instruments that we are using to do actually assess what we think they do/assess
= validity, to establish the equivalence of the scale/test/measure across cultures
Indigenous cultural studies: have rich descriptions of complex theoretical models
within a single culture, insights generated from these studies compared across
studies and cultures
MODULE 3
3.1: ENCULTURATION CULTURAL LEARNING
We have acquired the ability to share intentions: shared intentionality, predisposes us
for complex cooperation
Socialization: the process by which we learn and internalize the rules and patterns of
the society in which we live
Enculturation: the process by which we learn and adopt the ways and manners of our
specific culture
Socialization/enculturation agents: the people, institutions and organizations that
help ensure that socialization and enculturation occur
Universal: humans want to be competent, productive adults and members of their group
Culture specific: what it means to be competent and productive
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory: human development is dynamic,
interactive and it’s a process between individuals and various ecologies or
contexts that we find ourselves in.
Children contribute to their own development by interacting with and influencing
people around them.
Microsystem: immediate surroundings; family, school, peer group
Mesosystem: the linkages between microsystems
Jaar 1- semester 1 – blok 1
MODULE 1
1.1: WHAT IS CULTURE?
Mensen zijn zoals alle anderen, zoals sommige anderen, en zoals niemand
Culture: “unique meaning and information system, shared by a group and transmitted
across generations, that allows the group to meet basic needs of survival, pursue
happiness and well-being, and derive meaning from life”
en; een bril waar we constant door kijken wat ons helpt met het evalueren en
organiseren van informatie
WEIRD: western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic
Dit is waar psychologisch onderzoek op is gebaseerd
Dit is niet representatief voor de mensheid (representeert slechts 12%)
Toekomst:
Er is meer groei in cross cultureel psychologisch onderzoek
Tijdschriften erkennen de behoefte voor betere steekproeven
ONTWIKKELING VAN CULTUUR
De ontwikkeling van een cultuur gaat stap voor stap
Omgeving komt met eisen voor aanpassing: klimaat, resources, bevolkingsdichtheid
Origine van een cultuur: afhankelijk van omgevingsstressoren en welvaart
Latitudinale psychologie: afstand van de evenaar kan levels van psychologische
variabelen als creativiteit, agressie, levenstevredenheid, individualisme,
vertrouwen en suïcidaliteit van een land voorspellen
VERSCHILLENDE GROETEN TUSSEN CULTUREN
Absolutisme: psychologie is overal hetzelfde
Relativisme: onderliggende processen verschillen
Universalisme: onderliggende processen zijn hetzelfde, maar de expressie ervan
verschilt
Etics: universele psychologische processen of gedrag
Emics: cultuur-specifieke psychologische processen of gedrag
KEY TERMS
Maatschappij cultuur
Maatschappij: structuren/relaties van individuen
Cultuur: waarde van structuren/relaties
Land cultuur
Ras: meer een sociaal construct dan een biologische essentie
verschillen in ras zijn niet belangrijk voor wetenschappelijke of praktische
doeleinden zonder een duidelijk begrip van onderliggende oorzaken van de
geobserveerde verschillen en gelijkenissen
,Etniciteit: groep gekarakteriseerd door een gemeenschappelijke nationaliteit,
geografische afkomst, cultuur of taal
1.2: CONTENT OF CULTURE
Objectieve elementen: kunst/massa media/architectuur/kleding
Subjectieve elementen: dingen die je niet direct kan observeren, bijv. normen en
waarden
CULTURELE WAARDEN
Hofstede: differentieerde 4 verschillende dimensies van werk gerelateerde waardes;
1. Kracht afstand
2. Individualisme/collectivisme: de mate waarin groepen de neiging om voor
zichzelf en nabije familie te zorgen aanmoedigen, of juist te zorgen voor in-
groepen in ruil voor loyaliteit
3. Mannelijkheid/vrouwelijkheid
4. Onzekerheid vermijding
Later toegevoegd; langdurige/kortdurige oriëntatie en mildheid
Independence & interdependence: het “zelf” verschilt tussen culturen, in
individualistische culturen staat het zelf los van bijv. je moeder, in collectivistische
culturen overlapt je zelf met anderen
CULTURELE GELOVEN
Social axioms: algemene geloven over jezelf, de sociale en fysieke omgeving en de
spirituele omgeving; beweringen over de associatie tussen 2 of meer
entiteiten/concepten
Dynamische externaliteit: geloven in externe krachten zoals het lot, opperwezen en
spiritualiteit
Sociaal cynisme: vrees of pessimisme over de wereld
CULTURELE NORMEN
Nauwe samenleving: samenlevingen gevormd door een hoge mate van ecologische en
historische bedreigingen; sterke normen, lage tolerantie voor afwijkend gedrag,
mensen hierin doen meer aan zelfregulatie en monitoring
Losse samenleving: zwakke normen, hoge tolerantie voor afwijkend gedrag
MODULE 2
2.1: METHODS IN CROSS CULTURAL RESEARCH
Types of studies:
Exploratory studies: examines the existence of cross-cultural similarities or differences
Strength: broad scope for identifying similarities and differences
Weakness: limited capability to solve the causes of differences
Hypothesis-testing studies: examines why cultural differences exist
Inferences promote cross-cultural biases and inequivalence
,Structure-oriented studies: comparison of a culture’s constructs, structures, or
relationships among constructs with those of another culture
Levels of studies:
Individual-level studies: individual participants provide data and are the unit of
analysis
Ecological studies: countries or cultures are the units of analysis
Multilevel studies: involve data collection at multiple levels of analysis
(individual/group/culture)
Distinguishing levels is important;
Isomorphism: things have the same form; is not always a given > relationships
between variables may not be the same at different levels
Linkage studies: studies that try to assess an aspect of culture that is hypothesized to
produce cultural differences and then empirically link this measured aspect of
culture with the dependent variable of interest
Unpackaging studies: separate the contents of the global, unspecific concept of
culture into specific, measurable psychological constructs and examine their
contribution to cultural differences > lots of contextual information is important
Experiments: creating conditions to establish cause-effect relationships and
participants are randomly assigned to conditions and results are compared
between these conditions
o Priming studies: experimentally manipulating the mindsets of
participants and measuring the resulting changes in behaviour
o Behavioural studies: manipulations of environments and then observe
changes in behaviour > using an external mechanism that rewards specific
types of behaviour
2.2: BIAS AND EQUIVALENCE
Bias: differences that do not have the same meaning within and across cultures
if bias exists in cross-cultural comparative studies, the comparison loses meaning
Equivalence: state or condition of similarity in conceptual meaning and empirical
method between cultures – allows comparisons to be meaningful
Psychometric equivalence: ascertained by examining the internal reliability of the
measures across cultures
Types of bias:
Construct bias: are constructs defined in the same way across cultures?
o Model bias: do the theoretical framework and hypotheses being tested
mean the same thing in the cultures being tested?
Method bias: are our measurements working in the same way across different
cultures?
o Linguistic bias: are the research protocols semantically equivalent across
the languages used in the study? forward/backward translation (English
dutch English)
o Response bias: do people of the different cultures have different
tendencies to respond to questions? (extreme responding, middle
responding)
, o Measurement bias: are the specific measures, tests or instruments used
to collect data in different cultures equally valid and reliable across those
cultures?
o Sampling bias: are the samples in the cultures tested appropriate
representatives of their culture and equivalent to each other?
o Procedural bias: do the procedures by which data are collected mean the
same in all cultures tested? (interviewer effects)
Interpretational bias: are statistically significant findings practically
meaningful?
Are the interpretations made about the findings and conclusions drawn
biased in some way?
Are interpretations about cultural sources of differences justified by data?
Poortinga: how to deal with bias/non-equivalence:
Ignoring the non-equivalence; not good
Precluding comparison; pause and take a step back
Interpreting the non-equivalence
Reducing the non-equivalence in the data; statistical techniques
Types of studies:
Method validation studies/cross-cultural validation studies: test whether the very
instruments that we are using to do actually assess what we think they do/assess
= validity, to establish the equivalence of the scale/test/measure across cultures
Indigenous cultural studies: have rich descriptions of complex theoretical models
within a single culture, insights generated from these studies compared across
studies and cultures
MODULE 3
3.1: ENCULTURATION CULTURAL LEARNING
We have acquired the ability to share intentions: shared intentionality, predisposes us
for complex cooperation
Socialization: the process by which we learn and internalize the rules and patterns of
the society in which we live
Enculturation: the process by which we learn and adopt the ways and manners of our
specific culture
Socialization/enculturation agents: the people, institutions and organizations that
help ensure that socialization and enculturation occur
Universal: humans want to be competent, productive adults and members of their group
Culture specific: what it means to be competent and productive
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory: human development is dynamic,
interactive and it’s a process between individuals and various ecologies or
contexts that we find ourselves in.
Children contribute to their own development by interacting with and influencing
people around them.
Microsystem: immediate surroundings; family, school, peer group
Mesosystem: the linkages between microsystems
