SCI 225 PATHOPHYSIOLOGY ADVANCED
FINAL PROCTORED EXAM REVIEW 2026
◉ Be familiar with the Four types of Hypersensitivity and on how
they can be distinguished one from another. Answer: There are
several different types of hypersensitivity: immediate (or Type I),
cytotoxic (or Type II), immune-complex (or Type III), and delayed
(or Type IV). Type I is the most common type of allergy. Type I is a
local allergy, occurring rapidly where the allergen encounters the
body. The Type I reaction is triggered by IgE, the immunoglobulin
that responds to the presence of allergens. Type II hypersensitivity
is called cytotoxic because IgM or IgG causes the destruction of cells.
An example of cytotoxic hypersensitivity is the response to an
incompatible blood transfusion. Type III Hypersensitivity Type III
hypersensitivity is called immune- complex hypersensitivity. Type III
involves anti- gens combining with many antibodies in the blood,
forming a soluble mass of antigens and antibodies known as
immune complexes. These immune complexes deposit in tissues and
blood vessels where they trigger inflammation and tissue
destruction. Type IV Hypersensitivity Type IV hypersensitivities are
called delayed hypersensitivities because they take time to develop
following exposure to an allergen. The delay occurs because the
allergy is due to the action of T cells, which require time to recognize
the allergen, reproduce and differentiate, and bring about the allergy
symptoms. Delayed hypersensitivity includes the skin reaction to
poison ivy or poison oak, contact dermatitis from wearing latex
gloves.
,◉ Know how antifungal drugs destroy fungal diseases (cell
membranes).. Answer: Targets fungal walls and membranes but can
affect human cells as well, leading to toxic side effects
◉ Be familiar with the rubella virus.. Answer: Rubella (German
measles or three-day measles) is caused by the rubella virus. The
rubella virus is highly contagious and is spread by respiratory
droplets, by airborne transmission, and can also be transmitted from
pregnant women to their fetus. When rubella occurs in a pregnant
woman, it may cause congenital rubella syndrome, with potentially
devastating consequences for the developing fetus. Many people
with rubella have few or no signs or symptoms. Some rubella
patients develop a rash that appears as either pink or light red spots,
which may merge to form evenly colored patches. Other signs and
symptoms of rubella, which are more common in teens and adults,
may include headache; loss of appetite; mild conjunctivitis
(inflammation of the lining of the eyelids and eyeballs); a stuffy or
runny nose; swollen lymph nodes in other parts of the body; and
pain and swelling in the joints (especially in young women).
◉ Know about osteosarcoma. Answer: a malignant tumor of bone.
These tumors are found in muscle, bone, and cartilage.
◉ Know about Tumor Markers and their relation to both cancer cells
and normal healthy cells. Answer: Tumor markers are chemicals
made by tumor cells that can be detected in blood. Tumor markers
,are also produced by some normal cells in the body and levels may
be significantly elevated in noncancerous conditions. This limits the
potential for tumor marker tests to help in diagnosing cancer.
Examples of tumor markers include prostate-specific antigen for
prostate cancer and cancer antigen 125 for ovarian cancer.
◉ Know about alleles and their relation to the following traits:
haploid, homozygous, heterozygous and diploid. Answer: . Alleles
are alternative forms of a gene, and one of these alleles is located on
each of the paired chromosomes. If two of the same allele is
inherited, the person is homozygous for that trait. If the alleles are
different then the person is heterozygous for that trait. Some alleles
always produce their trait when inherited and are said to be
dominant. The result of inheriting the dominant allele is usually the
same whether a person is homozygous or heterozygous. Other
alleles are recessive, and only. manifest themselves when the person
is homozygous for the trait. Certain deviations from the basic
principles of inheritance have been described. Some alleles are co-
dominant, so that when both are inherited, both traits are expressed.
An example of co-dominant alleles is found in blood type AB. The
allele for the A factor is inherited from one parent and the allele for
the B factor from the other, but both alleles are expressed. At times, a
dominant allele is not fully expressed, a condition known as reduced
penetrance. Various factors modify the expression of genes,
including other genes, environmental conditions, and gender.
Examples of reduced penetrance include Huntington's disease and
Marfan syndrome, in which varying severity of disease occurs when
the genes are inherited.
, ◉ Know about Cerebal Palsy and its relation to the following: sex-
linked, heterozygous, homozygous and congenital.. Answer: Cerebral
palsy (CP) is a congenital disorder characterized by impaired muscle
movement, tone, and posture. CP is almost always present at birth
and affects about 1 in 300 children. Cerebral palsy is usually
apparent before 3 years of age. If the alleles are different then the
person is heterozygous for that trait.
◉ Be familiar with Angioplasty. Answer: Angioplasty is a procedure
used to open a partly occluded artery involves inserting a
balloontipped catheter into the femoral artery, then guiding it to the
heart and into the narrowed coronary artery. The balloon is
expanded to press against the vessel walls and open the lumen. A
stent, which is a cylindrical wire mesh of stainless steel or other
alloy, surrounds the balloon. Expansion of the balloon forces the
mesh into the lining of the vessel, which physically holds the lumen
open. Because the vessels commonly become occluded again
(restenosis) within months or a year, stents are coated with drugs
that prevent restenosis.
◉ . Be familiar with the following: bypass, ablation, defibrillator and
electrocardioversion.. Answer: Coronary artery bypass surgery
reroutes blood flow around the clogged arteries to improve blood
flow and oxygen supply to the heart. Catheter ablation is a
nonsurgical procedure in which a catheter is inserted into the
diseased area of the heart. A machine directs energy through the
catheter to small areas of the heart that cause the abnormal heart
FINAL PROCTORED EXAM REVIEW 2026
◉ Be familiar with the Four types of Hypersensitivity and on how
they can be distinguished one from another. Answer: There are
several different types of hypersensitivity: immediate (or Type I),
cytotoxic (or Type II), immune-complex (or Type III), and delayed
(or Type IV). Type I is the most common type of allergy. Type I is a
local allergy, occurring rapidly where the allergen encounters the
body. The Type I reaction is triggered by IgE, the immunoglobulin
that responds to the presence of allergens. Type II hypersensitivity
is called cytotoxic because IgM or IgG causes the destruction of cells.
An example of cytotoxic hypersensitivity is the response to an
incompatible blood transfusion. Type III Hypersensitivity Type III
hypersensitivity is called immune- complex hypersensitivity. Type III
involves anti- gens combining with many antibodies in the blood,
forming a soluble mass of antigens and antibodies known as
immune complexes. These immune complexes deposit in tissues and
blood vessels where they trigger inflammation and tissue
destruction. Type IV Hypersensitivity Type IV hypersensitivities are
called delayed hypersensitivities because they take time to develop
following exposure to an allergen. The delay occurs because the
allergy is due to the action of T cells, which require time to recognize
the allergen, reproduce and differentiate, and bring about the allergy
symptoms. Delayed hypersensitivity includes the skin reaction to
poison ivy or poison oak, contact dermatitis from wearing latex
gloves.
,◉ Know how antifungal drugs destroy fungal diseases (cell
membranes).. Answer: Targets fungal walls and membranes but can
affect human cells as well, leading to toxic side effects
◉ Be familiar with the rubella virus.. Answer: Rubella (German
measles or three-day measles) is caused by the rubella virus. The
rubella virus is highly contagious and is spread by respiratory
droplets, by airborne transmission, and can also be transmitted from
pregnant women to their fetus. When rubella occurs in a pregnant
woman, it may cause congenital rubella syndrome, with potentially
devastating consequences for the developing fetus. Many people
with rubella have few or no signs or symptoms. Some rubella
patients develop a rash that appears as either pink or light red spots,
which may merge to form evenly colored patches. Other signs and
symptoms of rubella, which are more common in teens and adults,
may include headache; loss of appetite; mild conjunctivitis
(inflammation of the lining of the eyelids and eyeballs); a stuffy or
runny nose; swollen lymph nodes in other parts of the body; and
pain and swelling in the joints (especially in young women).
◉ Know about osteosarcoma. Answer: a malignant tumor of bone.
These tumors are found in muscle, bone, and cartilage.
◉ Know about Tumor Markers and their relation to both cancer cells
and normal healthy cells. Answer: Tumor markers are chemicals
made by tumor cells that can be detected in blood. Tumor markers
,are also produced by some normal cells in the body and levels may
be significantly elevated in noncancerous conditions. This limits the
potential for tumor marker tests to help in diagnosing cancer.
Examples of tumor markers include prostate-specific antigen for
prostate cancer and cancer antigen 125 for ovarian cancer.
◉ Know about alleles and their relation to the following traits:
haploid, homozygous, heterozygous and diploid. Answer: . Alleles
are alternative forms of a gene, and one of these alleles is located on
each of the paired chromosomes. If two of the same allele is
inherited, the person is homozygous for that trait. If the alleles are
different then the person is heterozygous for that trait. Some alleles
always produce their trait when inherited and are said to be
dominant. The result of inheriting the dominant allele is usually the
same whether a person is homozygous or heterozygous. Other
alleles are recessive, and only. manifest themselves when the person
is homozygous for the trait. Certain deviations from the basic
principles of inheritance have been described. Some alleles are co-
dominant, so that when both are inherited, both traits are expressed.
An example of co-dominant alleles is found in blood type AB. The
allele for the A factor is inherited from one parent and the allele for
the B factor from the other, but both alleles are expressed. At times, a
dominant allele is not fully expressed, a condition known as reduced
penetrance. Various factors modify the expression of genes,
including other genes, environmental conditions, and gender.
Examples of reduced penetrance include Huntington's disease and
Marfan syndrome, in which varying severity of disease occurs when
the genes are inherited.
, ◉ Know about Cerebal Palsy and its relation to the following: sex-
linked, heterozygous, homozygous and congenital.. Answer: Cerebral
palsy (CP) is a congenital disorder characterized by impaired muscle
movement, tone, and posture. CP is almost always present at birth
and affects about 1 in 300 children. Cerebral palsy is usually
apparent before 3 years of age. If the alleles are different then the
person is heterozygous for that trait.
◉ Be familiar with Angioplasty. Answer: Angioplasty is a procedure
used to open a partly occluded artery involves inserting a
balloontipped catheter into the femoral artery, then guiding it to the
heart and into the narrowed coronary artery. The balloon is
expanded to press against the vessel walls and open the lumen. A
stent, which is a cylindrical wire mesh of stainless steel or other
alloy, surrounds the balloon. Expansion of the balloon forces the
mesh into the lining of the vessel, which physically holds the lumen
open. Because the vessels commonly become occluded again
(restenosis) within months or a year, stents are coated with drugs
that prevent restenosis.
◉ . Be familiar with the following: bypass, ablation, defibrillator and
electrocardioversion.. Answer: Coronary artery bypass surgery
reroutes blood flow around the clogged arteries to improve blood
flow and oxygen supply to the heart. Catheter ablation is a
nonsurgical procedure in which a catheter is inserted into the
diseased area of the heart. A machine directs energy through the
catheter to small areas of the heart that cause the abnormal heart
