BIO 168 latest Set Final Exam 2026

BIO 168 latest Set Final Exam 2026 Metabolism - -the sum of all chemical reactions in an organism that support life. Levels of complexity - -subatomic particles (electron, proton)-atom (hydrogen atom)- molecule (water molecule, glucose molecule)- macromolecule (protein molecule, dna molecule)-organelle (mitochondrion, Golgi apparatus, nucleus)-cell (muscle cell, nerve cell)-tissue (epithelia, connective) - organ (skin, heart) - organ system (skeletal system, digestive system)- organism. Homeostasis - -the body's maintenance of a stable internal environment. Oxygen and metabolism - -... Membranes - -mucous membranes-line body cavities that open to outside the body. Nose, mouth. Serous membranes-line walls of thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities. Secrete serous fluid that separates parietal layer (layer lining wall of cavity) from visceral layer (layer covering the organ). In thoracic cavity, parietal pleura lines thoracic compartments containing lungs. Visceral pleura covers lungs. Pericardial membranes-surround heart. Visceral pericardium (epicardium) covers heart's surface. Parietal pericardium is covered by thicker layer called fibrous pericardium. Peritoneal membranes-in the abdominopelvic cavity. Parietal peritoneum lines walls of abdominopelvic cavity. Visceral peritoneum covers most of organs in the cavity. Sections of the body - -1. Sagittal-lengthwise cut dividing the body into right and left portions. 2. Transverse-horizontal cut dividing the body into superior and inferior portions. 3. Frontal (coronal)-section that divides the body into anterior and posterior positions. Regions of the body - -see figure 1.24 and 1.25 on pages 32-33 of hole's anatomy. Cavities of the body - -1. Cranial-brain. 2. Vertebral canal (spinal cavity)-spinal cord, vertebrae. 3. Thoracic cavity-lungs. The heart, esophagus, trachea, and thymus are in the mediastinum. 4. Abdominopelvic cavity BIO 168 BIO 168 a. Abdominal cavity-stomach, liver, spleen, gallbladder, kidneys, small and large intestines. b. Pelvic cavity-terminal end of large intestine, urinary bladder, internal reproductive organs. There are several smaller cavities within the head, including the oral cavity, nasal cavity, orbital cavities, and middle ear cavities. Sphenoidal and frontal sinuses are connected to the nasal cavity. Elements/electrons/matter - -all matter is composed of fundamental substances called elements. All elements are composed of particles called atoms. Atoms are compose of protons (+), neutrons (electrically neutral) and one or more electrons (-). Functions of macromolecules - -1. Carbohydrates-c,h,o-simple sugar-provide energy, cell structure. Examples-glucose, starch. 2. Proteins-c,h,o,n (often s)-amino acids-provide cell structure, enzymes, energy. Examples-albumins, hemoglobin. 3. Lipids-c,h,o (often p)-glycerol, fatty acids, phosphate groups-provide energy, cell structure. Examples-triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids. Nucleic acids-c,h,o,n,p-nucleotides-store information for the synthesis of proteins, control cell activities. Examples-rna, dna. Transport/active - -active transport requires atp. It goes against the concentration gradient. Particles moved across cell membranes by active transport include sugars, amino acids, and sodium, potassium, calcium, and hydrogen ions. Passive/osmosis - -the movement of materials through a cell membrane without using atp. This may happen by osmosis, or diffusion of molecules from a place of higher concentration to a place of lower concentration. It also may happen by filtration, where molecules are forced through membranes by pressure caused by gravity. Osmosis/hypotonic, hypertonic, isotonic - -osmosis is diffusion of molecules through a semipermeable membrane from a place of higher concentration to a place of lower concentration. Hypotonic solutions contain a low concentration of solute relative to another solution (e.g. The cell's cytoplasm). When a cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, the water diffuses into the cell, causing the cell to swell and possibly explode. Example: a potato is placed in purified water, which has a low concentration of solute relative to the potato. Therefore, water diffuses into the potato, causing it to swell. Hypertonic solutions contain a high concentration of solute relative to another solution (e.g. The cell's cytoplasm). When a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, the water diffuses out of the cell, causing the cell to shrivel. Example: when a potato core is BIO 168 BIO 168 placed in very salty water, the salty water has a high concentration of solute relative to the potato. Therefore, water diffuses out of the potato and causes it to shrink. Isotonic = solution that has the same water and salt concentration as the cells. Mitosis - -cellular reproduction. The nuclear contents divide and 2 cells are formed from one. They are genetically identical with the full complement of 46 chromosomes each. The major events in mitosis are: 1. Prophase-chromatin condenses into chromosomes; 2. Metaphase-spindle fibers from centrioles attach to centromeres of each chromosome; 3. Anaphase-centromeres separate and spindle fibers shorten; 4. Telophase-chromosomes elongate and form chromatin threads, nucleoli form, membranes form around each chromosome set. Cell organelles/cell membrane, lysosomes, etc. - -cell organelles: Ribosomes-sythesize protein. Provide structural support and enzymatic activity to link amino acids to form proteins. Endoplasmic reticulum-provides attachment for ribosomes, sythesizes lipids. Serves as a transport system. Vesicles-store or transport substances within a cell. Golgi apparatus-refines, packages, and delivers proteins synthesized on the er. Mitochondria-sausage shape. The site of cellular respiration. Releases energy from food molecules and converts it to usable form. Where kreb's cycle happens. Lysosomes-where enzymes dismantle debris. They're the "garbage disposals" of the cell. Peroxisomes-membranous sacs that contain enzymes that catalyze metabolic reactions that release hydrogen peroxide. It is involved in detoxification of alcohol, synthesis of bile acids used in fat digestion, etc. Centrosome-forms spindle fibers during mitosis, and form cilia and flagella. Cilia and flagella-move things along! Microfilaments and microtubules- provide movement. Aerobic/anaerobic respiration: location, end products - -anaerobic respiration-occurs in cytosol. Glycolysis. A net yield of 2 atps per molecule of glucose is produced. 1. Two phosphate groups are added to a glucose molecule (phosphorylation), requiring energy from 2 atps. 2. The 6-carbon glucose is split into two 3-carbon molecules. 3. Nadh (electron carrier) is produced, atp synthesized, and two 3-carbon pyruvic acid molecules result. Aerobic respiration-occurs in mitochondrion. 1. Citric acid cycle. Produces 2 atp. 1. Acetyl coa combines with oxaloacetic acid to form a 6-carbon citric acid and coa. 2. Citric acid is changed through a series of reactions back into oxaloacetic acid. Coa is used again to combine with acetic acid to form acetyl coa, and the cycle repeats as long as there is oxygen and pyruvic acid. There are 2 turns of the cycle per glucose. Each turn produces 1 atp (1 atp per citric acid molecule). Eight hydrogen atoms are BIO 168 BIO 168 Transferred to nad+ and fad. Two co2 produced. 2. Electron transport chain-32-34 atps produced, depending on cell type. Nadh and fadh2 carry electrons to the ets. Energy from electrons transferred to atp synthase, which catalyzes the phosphorylation of adp to make it atp. Water is a byproduct. Oxygen is the final electron carrier. Dehydration synthesis - -an anabolic process where many simple sugars join to form larger molecules of glycogen, storing energy in the bonds of the larger molecule. Citric acid cycle - -produces 2 atp. 1. Acetyl coa combines with oxaloacetic acid to form a 6-carbon citric acid and coa. 2. Citric acid is changed through a series of reactions back into oxaloacetic acid. 3. Coa is used again to combine with acetic acid to form acetyl coa, and the cycle repeats as long as there is oxygen and pyruvic acid. There are 2 turns of the cycle per glucose. Each turn produces 1 atp (1 atp per citric acid molecule). Eight hydrogen atoms are Transferred to nad+ and fad. Two co2 produced. Tissues, basement membrane - -basement membrane-thin, nonliving layer that anchors epithelium to underlying connective tissue. Types of epithelial and examples - -simple squamous-single layer of thinned, flattened cells-lines air sacs of the lungs, forms walls of capillaries, lines insides of blood and lymph vessels, part of visceral and parietal membranes. Simple cuboidal epithelium-single layer of cube-shaped cells-lines follicles of thyroid, covers ovaries, lines kidney tubules and ducts of certain glands. Simple columnar epithelial-single layer of cells longer than they are wide and whose nuclei are usually at about the same level, near the basement membrane. Can be ciliated or nonciliated. Ciliated simple columnar epithelium aid in moving the female egg through the uterine tube. Nonciliated simple columnar epithelium lines uterus, stomach, small and large intestines. Pseudostratisfied columnar epithelium-appear stratisfied but they are not. Lines passages of respiratory system. Stratified squamous epithelium-many layers of cells, relatively thick. Epidermis, oral cavity, vagina, anal canal. Stratisfied cuboidal epithelium-2 or 3 layers of cuboidal cells that form the lining of a lumen. Lines ducts of mammary, sweat, and salivary glands. Stratisfied columnar epithelium-several layers. Superficial layers elongated, basal layers cube-shaped. Male urethra, larger ducts of exocrine glands. BIO 168 BIO 168 Transitional epithelium--changes in response to increased tension. Bladder, ureters, superior urethra. Glandular epithelium-composed of cells specialize to produce and secrete substances into ducts or body fluids. Exocrine glands, endocrine glands. Tendons/ligaments - -... Muscle types include? Functions - -skeletal-voluntary, striations, multinuclear, peripheral nucleii. Move the body. Cardiac-involuntary, striations, 1 nucleus, center. Keep heart beating. Smooth-involuntary, no striations, 1 nucleus, center. Move food through intestines, contracts uterus during childbirth. Skin layers - -epidermis-outer layer comprised of stratified squamous epithelium. Dermis-inner layer made of connective tissue, smooth muscle, nervous tissue, blood. Subcutaneous layer-hypodermis-adipose tissue, contains major blood vessels that supply the skin. Temp regulation--muscles, blood vessels - -???????????????????????? Blood vessels-vasodilation (cools you off), vasoconstriction (conserves heat). Muscles-movement produces heat. Types of joints - -by structure: A. Fibrous i. Syndesmosis, bones are bound by sheet or bundle of dense connective tissue. Example: between tibia and fibula. ii. Sutures-between flat bones of skul iii. Gomphosis-tooth root and maxilla. B. Cartilaginous i. Synchondrosis-bands of hyaline cartilage unite bones. Usually temporary, like epiphyseal plate. ii. Symphysis-like the fibrocartilage disc of pubic symphysis. C. Synovial Ball-and-socket (hip, shoulder), condylar, plane (joints between metacarpals and phalanges), hinge (elbow), pivot (joint between proximal ends of radius and ulna, atlas rotating around dens of axis), saddle (joint between carpal and metacarpal of thumb). By movement: amphiarthrotic (slightly movable), synarthrotic (immovable), diarthrotic (freely movable). Names of a few bones - -... Function of the skeleton - -support, protection, movement, storage (inorganic salts like calcium), blood cell formation. BIO 168 BIO 168 Synovial joints - -joints consisting of articular cartilage, a joint capsule, and a synovial membrane. They allow free movement. Knee. Connective tissue of muscles - -fascia-layers of dense connective tissue that separate adjacent muscles and hold muscles in position. It surrounds each muscle. It may extend to form a tendon which attaches muscle to bone. Aponeuroses-broad, fibrous sheets which attach muscles to other muscles or to bone. Myofibrils - -threadlike bundle of filaments in a muscle cell that play a fundamental role in muscle contraction. Myofibrils consist of myocin and actin. Acetylcholine/cholinesterase - -acetylcholinesterase is an enzyme that decomposes acetylcholine, the neurotransmitter that motor neurons use to control skeletal muscles. It prevents a single action potential from continuously stimulating a muscle fiber. When acetylcholine breaks down, stimulus to the sarcolemma and membranes of the muscle fiber cease. Creatine phosphate function - -it is the initial source of energy available to regenerate atp from adp and phosphate. It stores energy in its phosphate bond. Oxygen debt/muscle cramps - -oxygen debt-during strenuous exercise, oxygen deficiency causes lactic acid to accumulate. Oxygen debt is the amount of oxygen required to convert accumulated lactic acid to glucose and to restore supplies of atp (adenosine triphosphate) and creatine phosphate. Muscle cramps-muscle cramps are sustained, painful, involuntary muscle contractions. Caused by lack of atp. May be caused from changes in electrolyte concentration in extracellular fluid surrounding the muscle fibers and their motor neurons, triggering uncontrolled stimulation of the muscle. All or nothing/muscle tone - -all or nothing-a muscle fiber brought to threshold under a given set of conditions contracts completely, and each twitch generates equal force. Muscle tone-the continuous state of partial contraction of muscle fibers. Maintains posture. Myelin is what color? - -white Neuroglia cells - -cns: Astrocytes-star-shaped cells that provide support and hold structures together. Aid metabolism of substances like glucose. Help regulate concentrations of important ions, such as potassium, in interstitial space of nervous tissue. Form scar tissues after brain tissue injury. Connect neurons to blood vessels. Play an important role in blood-brain barrier. Oligodendrocytes-produce myelin. Microglia--support neurons. Phagocytize bacterial cells and debris. BIO 168 BIO 168 Ependyma-cuboidal or columnar cells that may have cilia. Form lining of central canal of spinal cord and covers ventricles of brain. Assist in circulation of cerebrospinal fluid Pns: Schwann cells--produce myelin found on peripheralmyelinated neurons Speed up neurotransmission Satellite cells--support clusters of neuron cell bodies (ganglia) Reflex arc---order - -receptor--sensory neuron--interneuron--motor neuron--effector Polarization of nerves - -a nerve fiber becomes polarized when the resting potential of the membrane changes. It starts out with an unequal distribution of charges- the outside is more positive and the inside is less positive. (sodium (na+) is in a higher concentration on the outside of the membrane and potassium (k+) is in a lower concentration on the inside of the membrane.) A stimulus changes the gradient- when more na+ flows in, the resting potential changes and polarization occurs, allowing for an action potential to be propagated down the axon. Saltitory conduction (myelin) - -impulses jump from node to node ( nodes of ranvier) along the myelinated axon. It is faster. Functions of nervous system - -receive information, decide what to do, act on those decisions (sensory, integrative, motor) Basic parts of the brain - -i. Cerebrum A. Frontal lobes-association areas-higher intellectual processes for concentrating, planning, complex problem solving, judging consequences of behavior. Motor areas control movement of voluntary skeletal muscles. B. Parietal lobes-sensory areas provide sensations of temperature, touch, pressure, and pain involving skin. Association areas function in understanding speech and using words to express thoughts and feelings. C. Occipital lobes-sensory areas responsible for vision. Association areas combine visual messages with other sensory experiences. D. Temporal lobes-sensory areas responsible for hearing. Association areas interpret sensory experiences and remember visual scenes, music, and other complex sensory patterns. BIO 168 BIO 168 E. Insula-"island of reil"-studies suggest that the insula serves as a crossroads for translating sensory info into emotional responses, such as disgust, joy, etc. Ii. Diencephalon--contains the following: Thalamus-gateway for sensory impulses ascending from other parts of nervous system to cerebral cortex. Transmits sensory info by synchronizing action potentials. Hypothalamus-regulates heart rate, arterial blood pressure, body temperature, water and electrolyte balance, hunger, movements and glandular secretions of stomach and intestines, substances that stimulate pituitatry gland,sleep and wakefulness. Posterior pituitary gland-secretes growth hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, etc. Pineal gland-produces melatonin, controls sleep/wake pattern. Iii cerebellum--communicates with other parts of cns; integrates sensory info concerning position of body parts; coordinates muscle activities; maintains posture. Iv brainstem A. Midbrain-contains reflex centers that move eyes and head, maintains posture B. Pons-relays impulses between medulla oblongata a Spinothalamic tract - -cns pathway which contains sensory fibers that transmit the sensations of pain, temperature, touch, and pressure. Lateral spinothalamic tract-conduct impulses from various body regions to the brain and give rise to sensations of pain and temperature. Anterior spinothalamic tract-conducts impulses that are interpreted as touch and pressure. Somatic nervous system - -communicates voluntary instructions from cns to skeletal muscles. Sensory adaptation - -the ability of the brain to ignore unimportant stimuli so that the brain is not overwhelmed. Crossing over of visual impulses - -happens at optic chiasm. Fibers of nasal (medial) half of each retina cross over. Fibers from nasal half of left eye and temporal half of right eye form right optic tract. Fibers from nasal half of right eye and temporal half of left eye form left optic tract. Common eye defects - -astigmatism-defect in curvature of cornea or lens. Some portions of an image are in focus while other portions are blurred. Nearsightedness (myopia)-distance vision is invariably poor. The eyeball is too long, so light waves focus in front of the retina and blur the image. Farsightedness (hyperopia)-the inability to accommodate enough to focus on very close objects. The eyeball is too short. Light waves are not focused sharply on the retina because the point of focus lies behind it. BIO 168 BIO 168 Nearsighted/farsighted - -nearsighted-distance vision is invariably poor. The eyeball is too long, so light waves focus in front of the retina and blur the image. Farsighted-the inability to accommodate enough to focus on very close objects. The eyeball is too short. Light waves are not focused sharply on the retina because the point of focus lies behind it. Olfactory receptors - -receptor cells that make up the olfactory organs lining the nasal cavity, superior nasal conchae, and a portion of the nasal septum. They sense odor. They are bipolar neurons surrounded by columnar epithelial cells. Tastes - -sweet, sour, bitter, salty,umami Organ of corti - -hearing organ located in the cochlea of the inner ear. Endochondral bone formation - -1. Masses of hyaline cartilage form models of future bones. 2. Cartilage tissue breaks down. Periosteum develops from connective tissue that encircles the developing structure. 3. Blood vessels and differentiating osteoblasts from the periosteum invade the disintegrating tissue. 4. Osteoblasts form spongy bone in space previously occupied by cartilage. 5. Osteoblasts beneath periosteum deposit thin layer of compact bone around spongy bone. 6. Osteoblasts become osteocytes when bony matrix completely surrounds them. 7. Epiphyses of developing long bone remain cartilaginous and continue to grow. 8. Secondary ossification centers appear in epiphyses, and spongy bone develops in all directions from them. 9. As spongy bone is deposited in diaphysis and epiphysis, a band of cartilage called the epiphyseal plate remains between the primary and secondary ossification centers. Serous vs mucous - -serous membranes-line the body cavities that do not open to the outside. Reduce friction between organs and cavity walls. Mucous membranes-line cavities and tubes that open to the outside of the body, like the oral and nasal cavities. Eye function - -to see! Sound quality - -tone Meniere's syndrome - -a rare chronic disease in which the amount of fluid in the inner ear increases intermittently, producing attacks of vertigo, a fluctuating hearing loss (usually in one ear) and tinnitus Cranial nerves - -nerves originating from the brain that communicate with other body parts. Organ of corti - -organ located in the cochlea; contains receptors (hair cells) that receive vibrations and generate nerve impulses for hearing BIO 168 BIO 168 What are the 6 membranes within the body cavities? - -parietal pleura, visceral pleura, visceral pericardium, parietal pericardium, parietal peritoneum, visceral peritoneum What does it mean to be "dark adapted"? - -it means the eye has accumulated the pigment rhodopsin. Define dehydration synthesis. Define hydrolysis. - -dehydration synthesis-a chemical reaction that builds up molecules by losing water molecules. Hydrolysis-metabolic process where a larger molecule is broken down into smaller ones by water decomposing carbs, lipids, and proteins. What's another name for frequency of sound? Amplitude? - -pitch, loudness What are 2 symptoms of meniere's syndrome? - -hearing loss, vertigo, tinnitus Name and describe the first 6 cranial nerves. - -oh, once one takes the anatomy final very good vacations are heavenly. Some say marry money, but my brother says big boobs matter more. I olfactory-smell-sensory Ii optic-vision-sensory Iii oculomotor-eyelid and eyeball movement-motor Iv trochlear-innervates superior oblique, turns eye downward and laterally-motor V trigeminal ophthalmic, maxillary,and mandibular branches--chewing, face and mouth touch and pain-both Vi abducens-turns eye laterally-motor What happens when surface blood vessels constrict? - -blood pressure goes up. The body conserves heat. What are the 3 bones of the coxa? - -ilium, ishium, pubis What decomposes acetylcholine? - -cholinesterase What are the 2 energy sources for muscles? - -glucose converted to atp, creatinine Where does saltitory conduction occur? Is it faster or slower? - -impulses jump from node to node ( nodes of ranvier) along the myelinated axon. It is faster. Are thick nerves faster than thin ones? - -yes Describe the function of the spinothalamic tract. - -lateral spinothalamic tract-conduct impulses from various body regions to the brain and give rise to sensations of pain and temperature. BIO 168 BIO 168 Anterior spinothalamic tract-conducts impulses that are interpreted as touch and pressure. What is a cva? - -cerebrovascular accident, or stroke What does the somatic and autonomic nervous systems connect to? - -i don't know....spinal cord? What is the optic chiasma? Only images from the ___ half of each retina cross over. - -a site at the base of the forebrain where the inner half of the fibers of the left and right optic nerves cross to the opposite side of the brain. Only images from the nasal (medial) half of each retina cross over. What is farsightedness caused by? - -shortening of the eyeball What are the 4 tastes? - -sweet, sour, bitter, salty. There is a 5th one called umami. Organ of corti - -organ located in the cochlea; contains receptors (hair cells) that receive vibrations and generate nerve impulses for hearing The sense of smell is ___. - -chemical Superior, inferior, lateral, medial, dorsal...? - -above, below, toward the side, toward the midline, back. Top 4 chemical elements that make up the human body? - -carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen What is atomic number? Atomic mass? How are electrons arranged? - -atomic number # of protons Atomic weight-# of protons and neutrons Arrangement-first shell 2, second shell 8, third shell 8. Isotopes - -atoms that have the same # of protons but different # of neutrons. Same atomic number, different atomic weight. What is the cell membrane made of? - -phospholipids and proteins What are the types of ribs? - -true, floating, false Epimysium, perimysium, endomysium - -... Wave of depolarization - -action potential List meninges in order. - -dura mater, arachnoid, pia mater BIO 168 What are the grooves of the brain? - -longitudinal fissure-divides hemispheres of brain, central sulcus-divides parietal from frontal lobe, lateral sulcus-along sides, transverse fissure-separates cerebrum from cerebellum. BIO 168