CANC 380 EXAM QUESTIONS WITH CORRECT ANSWERS LATEST UPDATE 2026

CANC 380 EXAM QUESTIONS WITH CORRECT ANSWERS LATEST UPDATE 2026 DALY - Answers - disability adjusted life year DALY = YLD + YLL Cancer has impacted research using... - Answers 1. vaccines 2. immunotherapy 3. screening Requirements for natural selection - Answers 1. variation in population 2. heritable variation 3. variation influences survival or reproduction Natural selection cellular level - Answers - rapid - reproduce faster - random genetic mutations - favourable traits - decreased fitness Clones vs subclones - Answers clones: derived from the same parent cell - share ancestry and genetics subclones: progeny of a mutant cell from a clone HER2 - Answers - evolutionary advantage - encodes receptor for EGFR2, breast division divergent evolution - Answers single species accumulate enough phenotypic differences to diversify convergent evolution - Answers two unrelated species that do not share a common ancestry develop analogous structures due to environmental pressures parallel evolution - Answers two unrelated species share common ancestor evolve on a similar path to produce phenotypes which cells are antigen presenting? - Answers 1. dendritic cells 2. macrophages 3. B lymphocytes MHC I MHC II differences - Answers MHC-I: all nucleated cells, display cytosolic proteins MHC-II: only found on APCs, displays ingested proteins Tumour antigen products - Answers 1. mutated proteins 2. protein levels 3. glycolipids 4. oncogenic products mutated products - Answers - mutations in genes that favour uncontrolled growth - displayed by MHC pathways - abnormal protein structure causes antigenicity - RAS and proteins protein levels - Answers - tolerance to low concentration of growth-related cell proteins expressed by non-cancerous cells - abnormal expression causes antigenicity - HER2 glycolipids - Answers - over express normal glycated products to aid cell invasion - over-expression of structures cause antigenicity - gastric cancers oncogenic products - Answers - presented to MHC, immunogenic - viral products cause antigenicity - E6 E7 are displayed in cervical cells infected by the HPV innate immune response - Answers - NKC do not require activation - macrophages recognize tumour antigens and eliminate pathogens - cytokines amplify and activate - TNF stimulates coagulation adaptive immune response - Answers - present tumour antigens to helper T cells and CTLs - helper T cells produce cytokines that promote CTL development - antibodies can be developed against tumour antigens Roles of immune system in cancer development - Answers 1. immune surveillance 2. tumour destruction 3. tumour promotion 4. immune editing TNM system - Answers T: tumour; size and location N: node; spread of tumour to lymph nodes M: metastasis; spread to other parts of the body TNM Stages of cancer progression - Answers Stage 0: in situ Stage 1: localized Stage 2&3: regional spread Stage 4: distant spread Bladder cancer signalling tumour stages - Answers TIS: flat and in situ, surface Ta: papillary tumour, lumen T1: submucosal CT called the lamina propria T2a: MIBC where the tumout has extended to the muscularis propria T2b: deeper layers T3: perivesical fat T4: surrounding tissues cell differentiation - Answers less specialized cells become more specialized cell dedifferentiation - Answers - cells grow reversely from a differentiated stage to a less differentiated stage - EMT Tumour grading: differentiation and extent of proliferation - Answers G1: well-differentiated, normal G2: moderately differentiated, moderate G3: poorly differentiated, spread more G4: undifferentiated, not normal EMT in cancer progression - Answers - genetic changes that alter epithelial cells - divide rapidly and activate pathways - activated and fully parallel that normal mesenchymal processes intravasion - Answers maintains mesenchymal status of mestastasizing cell as it reaches blood vessel and enters the blood stream extravasion - Answers - exit - cells remain in mesenchymal form - MET Gleason grading - Answers 1. normal: 1-2, defined glands with layers surrounding 2. grade 3: variation in glandular size 3. grade 4: merging of glands into large cribiform glands 4. grade 5: poorly differentiated neoplasia - Answers unregulated and proliferative growth types of tissue growth - Answers 1. normal 2. hypertrophy: cell size increases 3. hyperplasia: cell number increases 4. metaplasia: replace cell 5. dysplasia: cells look different 6. anaplasia: cells form backwards 7. neoplasia: new growth how does cancer begin? - Answers 1. silencing TSG: - both alleles are inactivated - two-hit hypothesis 2. activation of an oncogene: - causes cancer - proto-oncogenes encode proteins that regulate cell growth - oncoprot4eins upregulate growth and inhibit apoptosis - oncogenes are dominant the two-hit hypothesis - Answers - both alleles of a TSG must be mutated 1. one mutation can be inherited or random; random, genetic 2. the mutation of the second allele in the cell is required; radiation, viruses epigenetic alterations that encode DNA sequences - Answers 1. random genetic mutations 2. inherited genetic mutations 3. inherited genetic alterations 4. genotoxic stress random genetic mutations - Answers - six errors every cycle - first hit to in initiate growth inherited genetic mutations - Answers - direct blood relatives - TSG or proto-oncogenes - TP53, BRCA1/BRCA2, BRAF TP53 - Answers - encodes p53 - integrity of genome - binds to damaged DNA - Li fraument syndrome Li fraument syndrome - Answers - rare hereditary cancer predisposition - osteosarcoma, breast cancer, and soft tissue sarcoma - chr 17 BRCA1/BRCA2 - Answers - response to DNA damage during DNA repair - further mutations - inheritance - melanoma - requires 2 hit - chr 17 13 BRAF - Answers - B-RAF, MAPK pathway - transcription of genes that encode proteins - V600E - melanoma, inherited heritable epigenetic alterations - Answers - methylation or acetylation of histones - gene expression - inactivation of TSG genotoxic stress - Answers - damage the genome - radiation and smoking - second hit second hit TSG - Answers - all cancers require initial transformative hit to begin - random mutations, mutations and epigenetic alterations - oncogenes one hit - TSG need two hits genomic instability - Answers high frequency of changes in the genome of a cellular lineage maintaining genome stability - Answers 1. fidelity of DNA replication in S phase 2. segregation of chromosomes in mitosis 3. precise repair of sporadic DNA 4. cell cycle checkpoints ensures genomic stability in S phase - Answers - DNA pol - repair - maturation of okazaki - telomeres ensures genomic stability in segregation - Answers - chromosome condensation - sister-chromatid cohesion - kinetochore assembly and attachment ensures genomic stability in DNA damage - Answers - DNA repair pathways - DNA damage signalling ensures genomic stability in cell cycle - Answers - G1/S: size and growth - G2/M: DNA damage and replication - S: S phase - spindle - PMC: DNA damage consequences of genomic instability - Answers 1. mutations 2. variations 3. other chromosomal abnormalities - Answers - DSBs lead to cell death - aneuploidy - fusion genes that encode proteins - gene amplification results in imbalances in factors critical for maintaining homeostasis