Comprehensive Endocrine and Metabolic Overview: Hypothyroidism, Hyperthyroidism, Thyroid Storm, Diabetes Mellitus, Insulin, Glucagon, Islets of Langerhans, Cushing’s Syndrome, Graves Disease, Hashimoto, Glycemic Control, Biguanides, Diabetic Ketoacidosis,

Comprehensive Endocrine and Metabolic Overview: Hypothyroidism, Hyperthyroidism, Thyroid Storm, Diabetes Mellitus, Insulin, Glucagon, Islets of Langerhans, Cushing’s Syndrome, Graves Disease, Hashimoto, Glycemic Control, Biguanides, Diabetic Ketoacidosis, Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar Syndrome, Hormone Therapy, Estrogens, Androgens, Progestins, Alpha/Beta Adrenergic Drugs, Glucocorticoids, Osteoporosis, Raloxifene, Gastrointestinal Pharmacology, H. pylori, Asthma Management, COPD Treatment, Bronchodilators, Patient Education Exam Questions Verified and Provided with A+ Graded Rationales Latest Updated 2026 Characteristics of hypothyroidism Pale puffy expressionless face. Cold/dry skin. Hair loss. HR and temp lower. Fatigue. What time of day are thyroid drugs typically given? With or without food? In the morning on an empty stomach What are symptoms of hyperthyroidism? Weight loss, anxiety, insomnia, tachycardia Treatment for thyroxin crisis (thyroid storm) Potassium iodine, beta blocker OR Sedation, cooling, glucocorticoids, IV fluids Characteristics of Cushing's syndrome. Graves Disease. Hashimoto. Chushings- moon face, excess fat, Buffalo hump, lots of glucocorticoids Graves- eye inflammation Hashimoto- facial swelling What happens after the ingestion of glucose Blood glucose levels rise. Insulin is secreted in the body. 2/3 of glucose ingested is removed and stored in the liver for later use What do beta cells secrete? insulin What do alpha cells secrete? glucagon What do Islets Langerhans cells do? Secrete hormones into the blood, insulin/glucagon producing tissue What does insulin do? Promotes glucose uptake into tissues to lower blood glucose levels. Prevent fat and glycogen breakdown. Inhibits gluconeogenesisnand increases protein synthesis. Insulin in released on demand What A1C reading indicates diabetes? greater than 6.5% What should fasting blood glucose be? Less than 100 is acceptable on treatment Primary goal of diabetes treatment Prevent long term complications. Tight control of blood glucose levels. Control BP and lipids What is the main concern with diabetic patients? Hypoglycemia. Always assess patients for hypoglycemia How long before a meal should you administer short duration drugs? 5-10 minutes before first bite Why is insulin given subcutaneously? Insulin can not pass through the GI tract What is the best medication given to type 2 diabetics? Biguanides aka metformin (glucophage) What do biguanides do? Decrease glucose production by liver and increase glucose uptake by muscles. In effect lowering blood glucose levels What are acute complications of poor glycemic control Diabetic ketoa