High-Yield Electrolytes, Acid-Base, Energy States, Lung Disorders, Immune Response & Vitamin/Mineral Deficiency Mega-Review: Complete Clinical & Physiological Guide for USMLE, COMLEX & Medical Exam Questions Provided with A+ Graded Rationales Latest Updat

High-Yield Electrolytes, Acid-Base, Energy States, Lung Disorders, Immune Response & Vitamin/Mineral Deficiency Mega-Review: Complete Clinical & Physiological Guide for USMLE, COMLEX & Medical Exam Questions Provided with A+ Graded Rationales Latest Updated 2026 What electrolytes does the low volume state have? Increased total Na+ (NET Decreased serum Na (dilution affect) Decreased serum K+ Increased serum pH What serum pH does the low volume state have? Alkalotic (due to H/K exchanger) What serum pH does emesis have? Alkalotic because you vomit out HCl- What serum pH does diarrhea have? Acidosis because stool has bicarbonate What is a possible cause if pulse rises more than 10 bpm in repositioning from lying to sitting? Hypervolemia What happened if your pulse drops more than 10 bpm on standing? Autonomic dysfunction What are the symptoms of a low energy state? CNS: Mental retardation, dementia CV: Heart failure, pericardial effusion Muscle: Weakness, SOB, vasodilation, impotence, urinary retention, constipation What are the rapidly dividing cells of the energy state? Skin: dry Nails: brittle Hair: alopecia Low Bone Marrow: suppressed Vasculature: endothelium breaks down Lungs: infection/SOB Kidney: PCT effected first GI: N/V/D Bladder: decreased tone Sperm: decreased Germ cells: predisposed to cancer Breasts: atrophic Endometrium: amenorrhea What are the most common signs of the low energy state? Tachypnea and dyspnea What are the most common symptoms of the low energy state? Weakness and SOB What are the most common infections of the low energy state? UTI and respiratory infections What is the most common cause of death in the low energy state? Heart failure Explain restrictive lung diseases: Restrictive: Interstitial problem that causes trouble breathing in (small stiff lungs) Pulmonary function tests: FEV1/FVC greater than 0.8, decrease vital capacity ABG: decreased pH, decreased PO2, decreased PCO2, (increased respiratory rate) Chest XRAY: reticulonodular pattern, ground glass appearance Most common cause of death is cor-pulmonale Treatment: PEEP ventilator, increased oxygen, increased respiratory time Explain obstructive lung diseases: Obstructive: airway structure problem that cause trouble breathing out (mucus filled lungs) PFTs: FEV/FVC is less than 0.8, increased RV; Reid index increased (thick airway) ABG: decreased pH, normal to low PO2, increased PCO2. Most common cause of death is bronchiectasis Treatment: ventilator to increase respiratory rate and expiratory time, increase oxygen only if needed What symptoms does a "more likely to depolarize" state have? Brain: psychosis, seizures, jitterness Skeletal muscle: muscle spasms, tetany Smooth muscle: diarrhea, then constipation Cardiac: tachycardia, arrhythmia What symptoms does a "less likely to depolarize" state have? Brain: lethargic, mental status changes, depression Skeletal muscle: weakness, SOB Smooth muscle constipation then diarrhea Cardiac: hypotension, bradycardia What is the humoral immune response? B-cells and PMN's patrol the blood looking for bacteria What is the cell-mediated immune response? T cells and Macrophages patrol the tissues looking for non-bacteria What are the macrophages called in areas of the body? Blood: monocytes Brain: microglia Lung: type 1 pneumocytes Liver: kupffer cells Spleen: RES cells Lymph: dendritic cells Kidney: mesangial cells Peyer's Patch: M cells Skin: Langerhan cells Bone: osteoclast cells Connective tissue: histiocytes, giant cells, epithelioid cells