Introduction to Contemporary Society
By : Khiara Mostert
As summarised from :
Schaefer, R. (2015). Sociology: A brief introduction (11th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Please note this is not to be used as a replacement for the textbook but rather as a tool to assist in exam
preparation and learning.
,Contents
Chapter 2: Scientific Method ...................................................................................................................................3
Chapter 3 .................................................................................................................................................................3
Chapter 4 .................................................................................................................................................................7
Chapter 5 ...............................................................................................................................................................10
Chapter 6 ...............................................................................................................................................................14
Chapter 7................................................................................................................................................................15
Chapter 8 ...............................................................................................................................................................17
Chapter 9 ...............................................................................................................................................................19
Chapter 10 .............................................................................................................................................................20
Chapter 11..............................................................................................................................................................23
Chapter 12 .............................................................................................................................................................23
Chapter 13..............................................................................................................................................................23
Chapter 16 .............................................................................................................................................................25
, CHAPTER 2: SCIENTIFIC METHOD
A sociologist is committed to using the scientific method – a systematic, organized series of
steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching problems that plays a
major role in our society.
Requires precise preparation in developing research to improve accuracy.
Define problem
State as clearly as possible what you hope to investigate. Includes developing an operational
definition- an explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow the
researcher to assess the concept
Review the literature
Relevant scholarly studies and information to refine the problem under study, clarify possible
techniques to be used in collecting data, and eliminate or reduce avoidable mistakes.
Sometimes looks at macro and micro-level data.
Formulate a hypothesis
A hypothesis is a speculative statement about the relationship between two or more factors -
known variables. Variable – a measurable trait or characteristic that is subject to change
under different conditions. Sociologists generally hypothesis how one aspect of human
behaviour changes or affects another. A variable that will influence the other – Independent
Variable. Dependent variable – its action or change is dependent on the independent variable.
The independent variable predicts or causes a change in the dependent variable= Helps to
determine cause and effect relationships. Casual Logic – involves the relationship between a
condition or variable and a particular consequence with one leading to the other. A
Correlation exists when a change in one variable coincides with a change in the other-
therefore causality may be present, but does not necessarily indicate causation. Sociologists
seek to identify the causal link between variables – the suspected causal link is generally
described in the hypothesis.
Select a research design and collect and analyze data
The research design guides the researcher in collecting and analyzing data.
Select a sample – a sample is a selection from a larger population that is statistically
representative of that population, sociologists use a random sample frequently – Every
member of an entire population being studied has the same chance of being selected. When
subjects are hard to identify = Snowball or convenience samples – recruit participants
through word of mouth or by notices on the internet, these results will be far less accurate
than a carefully selected representative sample as they do not reflect the views of the broader
population. Research results should be reliable and valid- validity is the degree to which a
measure of scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study, a valid measure depends on the
reliability of the information, Reliability – the extent to which a measure produces consistent
results.
Develop a conclusion.
Sociologists are interested in the general pattern that emerges from the research as well as
``exceptions to the pattern. The conclusion of a research study represents both the beginning
and the end. As it terminates a phase of study it generates ideas for future studies. Supporting
hypotheses- studies do not always support the original hypothesis and then they reformulate
conclusions or make changes to their research design. Controlling for other factors- a control
variable is a factor that is held constant to test the relative impact of an independent variable.
CHAPTER 3
Culture
By : Khiara Mostert
As summarised from :
Schaefer, R. (2015). Sociology: A brief introduction (11th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Please note this is not to be used as a replacement for the textbook but rather as a tool to assist in exam
preparation and learning.
,Contents
Chapter 2: Scientific Method ...................................................................................................................................3
Chapter 3 .................................................................................................................................................................3
Chapter 4 .................................................................................................................................................................7
Chapter 5 ...............................................................................................................................................................10
Chapter 6 ...............................................................................................................................................................14
Chapter 7................................................................................................................................................................15
Chapter 8 ...............................................................................................................................................................17
Chapter 9 ...............................................................................................................................................................19
Chapter 10 .............................................................................................................................................................20
Chapter 11..............................................................................................................................................................23
Chapter 12 .............................................................................................................................................................23
Chapter 13..............................................................................................................................................................23
Chapter 16 .............................................................................................................................................................25
, CHAPTER 2: SCIENTIFIC METHOD
A sociologist is committed to using the scientific method – a systematic, organized series of
steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching problems that plays a
major role in our society.
Requires precise preparation in developing research to improve accuracy.
Define problem
State as clearly as possible what you hope to investigate. Includes developing an operational
definition- an explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow the
researcher to assess the concept
Review the literature
Relevant scholarly studies and information to refine the problem under study, clarify possible
techniques to be used in collecting data, and eliminate or reduce avoidable mistakes.
Sometimes looks at macro and micro-level data.
Formulate a hypothesis
A hypothesis is a speculative statement about the relationship between two or more factors -
known variables. Variable – a measurable trait or characteristic that is subject to change
under different conditions. Sociologists generally hypothesis how one aspect of human
behaviour changes or affects another. A variable that will influence the other – Independent
Variable. Dependent variable – its action or change is dependent on the independent variable.
The independent variable predicts or causes a change in the dependent variable= Helps to
determine cause and effect relationships. Casual Logic – involves the relationship between a
condition or variable and a particular consequence with one leading to the other. A
Correlation exists when a change in one variable coincides with a change in the other-
therefore causality may be present, but does not necessarily indicate causation. Sociologists
seek to identify the causal link between variables – the suspected causal link is generally
described in the hypothesis.
Select a research design and collect and analyze data
The research design guides the researcher in collecting and analyzing data.
Select a sample – a sample is a selection from a larger population that is statistically
representative of that population, sociologists use a random sample frequently – Every
member of an entire population being studied has the same chance of being selected. When
subjects are hard to identify = Snowball or convenience samples – recruit participants
through word of mouth or by notices on the internet, these results will be far less accurate
than a carefully selected representative sample as they do not reflect the views of the broader
population. Research results should be reliable and valid- validity is the degree to which a
measure of scale truly reflects the phenomenon under study, a valid measure depends on the
reliability of the information, Reliability – the extent to which a measure produces consistent
results.
Develop a conclusion.
Sociologists are interested in the general pattern that emerges from the research as well as
``exceptions to the pattern. The conclusion of a research study represents both the beginning
and the end. As it terminates a phase of study it generates ideas for future studies. Supporting
hypotheses- studies do not always support the original hypothesis and then they reformulate
conclusions or make changes to their research design. Controlling for other factors- a control
variable is a factor that is held constant to test the relative impact of an independent variable.
CHAPTER 3
Culture
