Final Exam Review
Define Microbiology: the study of the biology of microscopic organisms.
How does microbiology relate to everyday life activities? These tiny organisms play
a huge role in our lives every day. Can be seen in the fermentation process, we
have microbiome in our gut, when we use disinfectants to kill harmful microbes, in
waste decomposition and nutrient recycling, and in producing biofuels
Describe ways microbes are beneficial to humans. Give 2 examples
- The bacteria in our gut microbiome help break down food, aid in nutrient
absorption, and even produce vitamins like B12 and K.
- Beneficial microbes are used in producing antibiotics, vaccines, and other life-
saving treatments
Describe ways microbes are harmful to humans. Give 2 examples
- Some microbes, like bacteria and viruses, are responsible for illnesses
ranging from the common cold to more severe infections like tuberculosis
and COVID-19. These pathogens invade the body and disrupt normal
functions, sometimes leading to life-threatening conditions
- Harmful microbes can contaminate food, causing foodborne illnesses like
salmonella, E. coli infections, or botulism. Eating contaminated food can
result in severe gastrointestinal problems and other health complications.
Describe organisms that are considered to be microbes. Tiny living organisms that
are so small they can only be seen under a microscope.
Which microbes are prokaryotes? Bacteria, archaea
Which microbes are eukaryotes? Fungi, protozoa, algae
Describe the scientific method. Process of formulating a testable explanation for a
question, doing controlled experiments to test that explanation, and then publishing
the methods, results, and conclusions
Describe how Redi, Leeuwenhoek, Pasteur, Koch, Semmelweis, Fleming, Lister and
others mentioned in your book contributed to the development of microbiology.
- Francesco Redi: challenged the idea of spontaneous generation in the 17 th
century. He showed that worms in rotting meat came from laid by flies, not
from meat itself
- Anton Van Leuwenhoek: the first to observe and describe microorganisms
using a microscope he developed himself
- Robert Koch: developed Koch’s postulates. He identified the bacteria
responsible for tuberculosis, cholera, and anthrax
- Ignaz Semmelweis: advocated for handwashing in medical settings
- Alexander Fleming: discovered penicillin
- Joseph Lister: introduced antiseptic surgery using phenol to sterilize
surgical instruments
How did the use of the scientific method help each person in their investigations? It
helped make discoveries, verify facts, and refine theories. Ensured that conclusions
are based on evidence rather than assumptions
,What is spontaneous generation? Vital force creates life from non-living material
Why was it important to disprove spontaneous generation? Helped scientists
understand that living organisms do not arise from non-living matter
What are Koch's postulates? Set of criteria used to establish a casual relationship
between a microorganism and a disease
- The microorganism must be found in all individuals suffering from the
disease, but not in healthy individuals
- The microorganism must be isolated from a diseased individual and grown in
pure culture
- The cultured microorganism must cause the same disease when introduced
into a healthy individual
- The microorganism must be re-isolated from the newly infected individual
and identified as the same original pathogen
Is it ethical to use Koch's postulates if a human is the only host you can infect? No.
Infecting a healthy human intentionally to prove a disease’s causative agent poses
significant ethical concerns
Cell biology- goals: understanding the structure, function, and behavior of cells
You should be able to discuss all of the structures and their functions for a typical
Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell. ( I consider this to be a review from biology 1410.)
- Prokaryotic Cell (Bacteria and Archaea)
o Cell Membrane – Controls what enters and leaves the cell
o Cell Wall – Provides structure and protection (made of peptidoglycan
in bacteria).
o Cytoplasm – The fluid interior where biochemical reactions occur.
o Ribosomes – Responsible for protein synthesis
o Nucleoid Region – Contains genetic material (DNA) in a single,
circular chromosome
o Plasmids – Small DNA molecules that often carry additional genes
(e.g., antibiotic resistance).
o Flagella – Used for movement
o Pili/Fimbriae – Helps in attachment to surfaces and other cells
(sometimes involved in DNA transfer via conjugation).
- Eukaryotic Cell (Plants, Animals, Fungi, Protists)
o Nucleus – Holds genetic material (DNA) and directs cell activities.
o Nucleolus – Produces ribosomes.
o Cell Membrane – Regulates substances entering/exiting the cell.
o Cytoplasm – Contains organelles and supports cellular processes.
o Ribosomes – Builds proteins for cell function.
o Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Rough ER – Studded with ribosomes; synthesizes proteins.
Smooth ER – Helps with lipid production and detoxification.
o Golgi Apparatus – Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for
transport.
o Mitochondria – The powerhouse of the cell; generates ATP for energy.
, o Lysosomes – Contains enzymes for digestion (in animal cells).
o Peroxisomes – Breaks down harmful substances.
o Vacuoles – Stores materials; large central vacuole in plant cells
maintains pressure.
o Centrioles – Aid in cell division (found in animal cells).
o Chloroplasts – Enable photosynthesis in plant cells.
o Cell Wall – Provides support (in plant and fungal cells).
You should be able to discuss the composition of the structures of the cell. Which
organelles are made of or surround by membranes? Nucleus, Endoplasmic
Reticulum, Golgi Apparatus, Mitochondria, Chloroplasts, Lysosomes, Vacuoles Which
organelle is not surrounded by a membrane? Ribosomes
Which structures can be used to identify the different forms of life, that is which
ones distinguish bacteria, Archaea and eukaryotes from each other?
Feature Bacteria Archaea Eukaryotes
Cell Type Prokaryotic Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Cell Wall Peptidoglycan Varies Cellulose (plants),
Composition chitin (fungi), or
none (animals)
Membrane Ester-linked Ether-linked Ester-linked
Lipids phospholipids phospholipids phospholipids
Genetic Material Circular DNA Circular DNA Linear DNA,
organized in
nucleus
Ribosome Size 70S ribosomes 70S ribosomes 80S ribosomes
Metabolism & Found in diverse Thrive in extreme Found in complex
Environment environments environments multicellular
organisms
Introns in Genes Rare Some introns Introns common in
present genes
What are the shapes of bacteria? Cocci (spherical), Bacilli (rod-shaped), Spirilla
(spiral-shaped)
Describe the bacterial flagella, including the composition and how the flagella may
be organized around a cell. Long, whip-like structures that help bacteria move.
- Composition:
o Filament: long, tail-like structure made of flagellin that extends
outward
o Hook: curved section connecting the filament to the basal body
o Basal body: set of rings embedded in the cell membrane and cell
wall. Acting as a motor to rotate the flagella
- Flagellar arrangements:
o Monotrichous: single flagellum at one end
o Lophotrichous: cluster of flagella at one end
o Amphitrichous: one flagellum at each end
o Peritrichous: flagella covering the entire cell surface
, o Atrichous: no flagella present
Questions on transport and membranes.
- What advantages do active transport mechanisms give a cell? Moves
substances against the gradient, allows selective uptake of nutrients, helps
maintain homeostasis, supports energy production, removes toxins and
waste
- What are the different forms of transport?
o Passive Transport (No Energy Required)
Simple Diffusion: Molecules move from high to low
concentration across the cell membrane without assistance
(e.g., oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange)
Facilitated Diffusion: Transport proteins help larger or
charged molecules (like glucose or ions) move across the
membrane down their concentration gradient.
Osmosis: The movement of water through a semi-permeable
membrane, balancing concentrations inside and outside the cell.
o Active Transport (Requires Energy)
Primary Active Transport: Uses ATP directly to move
molecules against their concentration gradient. Example: the
sodium-potassium pump that maintains nerve impulses.
Secondary Active Transport: Uses energy indirectly, relying
on gradients created by primary transport. Example: glucose
transport in the intestines.
o Bulk Transport (For Large Molecules)
Endocytosis: The cell engulfs substances into vesicles
Phagocytosis: Engulfs large particles like bacteria. “cell
eating”
Pinocytosis: Takes in fluids and dissolved substances.
“cell drinking”
Receptor-mediated endocytosis: Uses receptors to
select specific molecules
Exocytosis: The cell expels materials, like hormones or waste
products, using vesicles.
Describe the structure and composition of membranes.
- Composition:
o Phospholipids: The main structural component, arranged in a bilayer
where hydrophilic (water-attracting) heads face outward, and
hydrophobic (water-repelling) tails face inward.
o Proteins: Embedded throughout the membrane, serving functions
such as transport, signaling, and structural support
Integral proteins: Span the membrane and help transport
molecules
Peripheral proteins: attach to the membrane surface and
assist in communication
Cholesterol: helps maintain membrane flexibility and stability,
preventing extremes in fluidity.
Define Microbiology: the study of the biology of microscopic organisms.
How does microbiology relate to everyday life activities? These tiny organisms play
a huge role in our lives every day. Can be seen in the fermentation process, we
have microbiome in our gut, when we use disinfectants to kill harmful microbes, in
waste decomposition and nutrient recycling, and in producing biofuels
Describe ways microbes are beneficial to humans. Give 2 examples
- The bacteria in our gut microbiome help break down food, aid in nutrient
absorption, and even produce vitamins like B12 and K.
- Beneficial microbes are used in producing antibiotics, vaccines, and other life-
saving treatments
Describe ways microbes are harmful to humans. Give 2 examples
- Some microbes, like bacteria and viruses, are responsible for illnesses
ranging from the common cold to more severe infections like tuberculosis
and COVID-19. These pathogens invade the body and disrupt normal
functions, sometimes leading to life-threatening conditions
- Harmful microbes can contaminate food, causing foodborne illnesses like
salmonella, E. coli infections, or botulism. Eating contaminated food can
result in severe gastrointestinal problems and other health complications.
Describe organisms that are considered to be microbes. Tiny living organisms that
are so small they can only be seen under a microscope.
Which microbes are prokaryotes? Bacteria, archaea
Which microbes are eukaryotes? Fungi, protozoa, algae
Describe the scientific method. Process of formulating a testable explanation for a
question, doing controlled experiments to test that explanation, and then publishing
the methods, results, and conclusions
Describe how Redi, Leeuwenhoek, Pasteur, Koch, Semmelweis, Fleming, Lister and
others mentioned in your book contributed to the development of microbiology.
- Francesco Redi: challenged the idea of spontaneous generation in the 17 th
century. He showed that worms in rotting meat came from laid by flies, not
from meat itself
- Anton Van Leuwenhoek: the first to observe and describe microorganisms
using a microscope he developed himself
- Robert Koch: developed Koch’s postulates. He identified the bacteria
responsible for tuberculosis, cholera, and anthrax
- Ignaz Semmelweis: advocated for handwashing in medical settings
- Alexander Fleming: discovered penicillin
- Joseph Lister: introduced antiseptic surgery using phenol to sterilize
surgical instruments
How did the use of the scientific method help each person in their investigations? It
helped make discoveries, verify facts, and refine theories. Ensured that conclusions
are based on evidence rather than assumptions
,What is spontaneous generation? Vital force creates life from non-living material
Why was it important to disprove spontaneous generation? Helped scientists
understand that living organisms do not arise from non-living matter
What are Koch's postulates? Set of criteria used to establish a casual relationship
between a microorganism and a disease
- The microorganism must be found in all individuals suffering from the
disease, but not in healthy individuals
- The microorganism must be isolated from a diseased individual and grown in
pure culture
- The cultured microorganism must cause the same disease when introduced
into a healthy individual
- The microorganism must be re-isolated from the newly infected individual
and identified as the same original pathogen
Is it ethical to use Koch's postulates if a human is the only host you can infect? No.
Infecting a healthy human intentionally to prove a disease’s causative agent poses
significant ethical concerns
Cell biology- goals: understanding the structure, function, and behavior of cells
You should be able to discuss all of the structures and their functions for a typical
Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell. ( I consider this to be a review from biology 1410.)
- Prokaryotic Cell (Bacteria and Archaea)
o Cell Membrane – Controls what enters and leaves the cell
o Cell Wall – Provides structure and protection (made of peptidoglycan
in bacteria).
o Cytoplasm – The fluid interior where biochemical reactions occur.
o Ribosomes – Responsible for protein synthesis
o Nucleoid Region – Contains genetic material (DNA) in a single,
circular chromosome
o Plasmids – Small DNA molecules that often carry additional genes
(e.g., antibiotic resistance).
o Flagella – Used for movement
o Pili/Fimbriae – Helps in attachment to surfaces and other cells
(sometimes involved in DNA transfer via conjugation).
- Eukaryotic Cell (Plants, Animals, Fungi, Protists)
o Nucleus – Holds genetic material (DNA) and directs cell activities.
o Nucleolus – Produces ribosomes.
o Cell Membrane – Regulates substances entering/exiting the cell.
o Cytoplasm – Contains organelles and supports cellular processes.
o Ribosomes – Builds proteins for cell function.
o Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Rough ER – Studded with ribosomes; synthesizes proteins.
Smooth ER – Helps with lipid production and detoxification.
o Golgi Apparatus – Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for
transport.
o Mitochondria – The powerhouse of the cell; generates ATP for energy.
, o Lysosomes – Contains enzymes for digestion (in animal cells).
o Peroxisomes – Breaks down harmful substances.
o Vacuoles – Stores materials; large central vacuole in plant cells
maintains pressure.
o Centrioles – Aid in cell division (found in animal cells).
o Chloroplasts – Enable photosynthesis in plant cells.
o Cell Wall – Provides support (in plant and fungal cells).
You should be able to discuss the composition of the structures of the cell. Which
organelles are made of or surround by membranes? Nucleus, Endoplasmic
Reticulum, Golgi Apparatus, Mitochondria, Chloroplasts, Lysosomes, Vacuoles Which
organelle is not surrounded by a membrane? Ribosomes
Which structures can be used to identify the different forms of life, that is which
ones distinguish bacteria, Archaea and eukaryotes from each other?
Feature Bacteria Archaea Eukaryotes
Cell Type Prokaryotic Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Cell Wall Peptidoglycan Varies Cellulose (plants),
Composition chitin (fungi), or
none (animals)
Membrane Ester-linked Ether-linked Ester-linked
Lipids phospholipids phospholipids phospholipids
Genetic Material Circular DNA Circular DNA Linear DNA,
organized in
nucleus
Ribosome Size 70S ribosomes 70S ribosomes 80S ribosomes
Metabolism & Found in diverse Thrive in extreme Found in complex
Environment environments environments multicellular
organisms
Introns in Genes Rare Some introns Introns common in
present genes
What are the shapes of bacteria? Cocci (spherical), Bacilli (rod-shaped), Spirilla
(spiral-shaped)
Describe the bacterial flagella, including the composition and how the flagella may
be organized around a cell. Long, whip-like structures that help bacteria move.
- Composition:
o Filament: long, tail-like structure made of flagellin that extends
outward
o Hook: curved section connecting the filament to the basal body
o Basal body: set of rings embedded in the cell membrane and cell
wall. Acting as a motor to rotate the flagella
- Flagellar arrangements:
o Monotrichous: single flagellum at one end
o Lophotrichous: cluster of flagella at one end
o Amphitrichous: one flagellum at each end
o Peritrichous: flagella covering the entire cell surface
, o Atrichous: no flagella present
Questions on transport and membranes.
- What advantages do active transport mechanisms give a cell? Moves
substances against the gradient, allows selective uptake of nutrients, helps
maintain homeostasis, supports energy production, removes toxins and
waste
- What are the different forms of transport?
o Passive Transport (No Energy Required)
Simple Diffusion: Molecules move from high to low
concentration across the cell membrane without assistance
(e.g., oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange)
Facilitated Diffusion: Transport proteins help larger or
charged molecules (like glucose or ions) move across the
membrane down their concentration gradient.
Osmosis: The movement of water through a semi-permeable
membrane, balancing concentrations inside and outside the cell.
o Active Transport (Requires Energy)
Primary Active Transport: Uses ATP directly to move
molecules against their concentration gradient. Example: the
sodium-potassium pump that maintains nerve impulses.
Secondary Active Transport: Uses energy indirectly, relying
on gradients created by primary transport. Example: glucose
transport in the intestines.
o Bulk Transport (For Large Molecules)
Endocytosis: The cell engulfs substances into vesicles
Phagocytosis: Engulfs large particles like bacteria. “cell
eating”
Pinocytosis: Takes in fluids and dissolved substances.
“cell drinking”
Receptor-mediated endocytosis: Uses receptors to
select specific molecules
Exocytosis: The cell expels materials, like hormones or waste
products, using vesicles.
Describe the structure and composition of membranes.
- Composition:
o Phospholipids: The main structural component, arranged in a bilayer
where hydrophilic (water-attracting) heads face outward, and
hydrophobic (water-repelling) tails face inward.
o Proteins: Embedded throughout the membrane, serving functions
such as transport, signaling, and structural support
Integral proteins: Span the membrane and help transport
molecules
Peripheral proteins: attach to the membrane surface and
assist in communication
Cholesterol: helps maintain membrane flexibility and stability,
preventing extremes in fluidity.
