HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY FROM CELLS TO
SYSTEMS COMPREHENSIVE EXAM 2026
QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS GRADED A+
◉ endocrine gland. Answer: ductless, secrete hormones into the blood
◉ enzyme. Answer: specialized protein molecule that catalyzes a
particular chemical reaction in the body
◉ epithelial tissue. Answer: functional cell grouping that specializes in
exchange of materials between cell and its environment; covers and lines
varies body surfaces & cavities; also forms secretory glands
◉ exocrine gland. Answer: secretes through ducts to outside of body or
into a body cavity that communicates with the outside
◉ extracellular fluid. Answer: plasma (liquid portion of blood) +
interstitial fluid
◉ extrinsic control. Answer: regulatory mechanism that originates
outside the organ affected, either via the nervous or endocrine system
,◉ feedforward mechanism. Answer: response designed to prevent an
anticipated change in a controlled variable
◉ glands. Answer: epithelial tissue derivatives that are specialized for
secretion
◉ homeostatic control system. Answer: sensor -> integrator (control
center) -> effector; system works to restore set point of a controlled
variable
◉ organ. Answer: 2 or more tissue types organized to perform 1 or more
functions
◉ tissue. Answer: (1) a functional aggregation of cells of a single
specialized type; (2) the aggregate of various cellular + extracellular
components that make up a particular organ [clinical usage]
◉ actin. Answer: contractile protein forming the backbone of the thin
filaments in muscle fibers
◉ adenosine diphosphate (ADP). Answer: 2-phosphate product formed
by splitting off of 1 phosphate group from adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
to ultimate yield energy for cellular use
,◉ amoeboid movement. Answer: "crawling" movement of white blood
cells
◉ ATP synthase. Answer: mitochondrial enzyme that catalyzes synthesis
of ATP from ADP + 1 inorganic phosphate group
◉ autophagy. Answer: selective self-digestion of cell parts (such as
worn-out organelles) by lysosomes
◉ catalase. Answer: an antioxidant enzyme found in peroxisomes that
decomposes H2O2 into H20 and O2
◉ cell. Answer: smallest unit capable of carrying out the processes
associated with life; the basic unit of structure AND function in living
organisms
◉ cellular respiration. Answer: series of chemical reactions in cell that
convert nutrients into yield energy, usually by using O2 and releasing
CO2 as a byproduct; glycolysis -> citric acid cycle -> oxidative
phosphorylation (electron transport system/chain + chemiosmosis)
◉ centrosome. Answer: microtubule organizing center (also called "cell
center") near nucleus; consists of a pair of centrioles surrounded by an
amorphous mass of proteins
, ◉ chemiosmosis. Answer: ATP production in mitochondria catalyzed by
ATP synthase, activated by flow of H+ ions down concentration gradient
established by electron transport system/chain
◉ dynein. Answer: the molecular motor that "walks" along microtubular
"highways" toward the cell center; for ex., transporting debris from the
axon terminal to the cell body for destruction by lysosomes
◉ glycogen. Answer: storage form of glucose in muscle & liver
◉ glycolysis. Answer: breaks down glucose into pyruvate molecules;
takes place in cytosol
◉ hydrolysis. Answer: digestion of a nutrient molecule by adding water
to a bonding site
◉ inclusion. Answer: non-permanent mass of stored material (ex.
glycogen or fat/triglycerides) in a cell
◉ intermediary metabolism. Answer: refers collectively to a large set of
chemical reactions inside cell that involve degradation, synthesis &
transformation of small organic molecules (ex. simple sugars, amino
acids, fatty acids); always occurs in cytoplasm
SYSTEMS COMPREHENSIVE EXAM 2026
QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS GRADED A+
◉ endocrine gland. Answer: ductless, secrete hormones into the blood
◉ enzyme. Answer: specialized protein molecule that catalyzes a
particular chemical reaction in the body
◉ epithelial tissue. Answer: functional cell grouping that specializes in
exchange of materials between cell and its environment; covers and lines
varies body surfaces & cavities; also forms secretory glands
◉ exocrine gland. Answer: secretes through ducts to outside of body or
into a body cavity that communicates with the outside
◉ extracellular fluid. Answer: plasma (liquid portion of blood) +
interstitial fluid
◉ extrinsic control. Answer: regulatory mechanism that originates
outside the organ affected, either via the nervous or endocrine system
,◉ feedforward mechanism. Answer: response designed to prevent an
anticipated change in a controlled variable
◉ glands. Answer: epithelial tissue derivatives that are specialized for
secretion
◉ homeostatic control system. Answer: sensor -> integrator (control
center) -> effector; system works to restore set point of a controlled
variable
◉ organ. Answer: 2 or more tissue types organized to perform 1 or more
functions
◉ tissue. Answer: (1) a functional aggregation of cells of a single
specialized type; (2) the aggregate of various cellular + extracellular
components that make up a particular organ [clinical usage]
◉ actin. Answer: contractile protein forming the backbone of the thin
filaments in muscle fibers
◉ adenosine diphosphate (ADP). Answer: 2-phosphate product formed
by splitting off of 1 phosphate group from adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
to ultimate yield energy for cellular use
,◉ amoeboid movement. Answer: "crawling" movement of white blood
cells
◉ ATP synthase. Answer: mitochondrial enzyme that catalyzes synthesis
of ATP from ADP + 1 inorganic phosphate group
◉ autophagy. Answer: selective self-digestion of cell parts (such as
worn-out organelles) by lysosomes
◉ catalase. Answer: an antioxidant enzyme found in peroxisomes that
decomposes H2O2 into H20 and O2
◉ cell. Answer: smallest unit capable of carrying out the processes
associated with life; the basic unit of structure AND function in living
organisms
◉ cellular respiration. Answer: series of chemical reactions in cell that
convert nutrients into yield energy, usually by using O2 and releasing
CO2 as a byproduct; glycolysis -> citric acid cycle -> oxidative
phosphorylation (electron transport system/chain + chemiosmosis)
◉ centrosome. Answer: microtubule organizing center (also called "cell
center") near nucleus; consists of a pair of centrioles surrounded by an
amorphous mass of proteins
, ◉ chemiosmosis. Answer: ATP production in mitochondria catalyzed by
ATP synthase, activated by flow of H+ ions down concentration gradient
established by electron transport system/chain
◉ dynein. Answer: the molecular motor that "walks" along microtubular
"highways" toward the cell center; for ex., transporting debris from the
axon terminal to the cell body for destruction by lysosomes
◉ glycogen. Answer: storage form of glucose in muscle & liver
◉ glycolysis. Answer: breaks down glucose into pyruvate molecules;
takes place in cytosol
◉ hydrolysis. Answer: digestion of a nutrient molecule by adding water
to a bonding site
◉ inclusion. Answer: non-permanent mass of stored material (ex.
glycogen or fat/triglycerides) in a cell
◉ intermediary metabolism. Answer: refers collectively to a large set of
chemical reactions inside cell that involve degradation, synthesis &
transformation of small organic molecules (ex. simple sugars, amino
acids, fatty acids); always occurs in cytoplasm
