Covers All 22 Chapters
STUDY GUIDE
, Table of Contents
Chapter Title Page
Preface v
1 Chemical Foundations 1
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 24
3 Stoichiometry 48
4 Types of Chemical Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry 82
5 Gases 115
6 Thermochemistry 142
7 Atomic Structure and Periodicity 159
8 Bonding: General Concepts 182
9 Covalent Bonding: Orbitals 209
10 Liquids and Solids 221
11 Properties of Solutions 237
12 Chemical Kinetics 258
13 Chemical Equilibrium 283
14 Acids and Bases 307
15 Acid-Base Equilibria 335
16 Solubility and Complex Ion Equilibria 357
17 Spontaneity, Entropy and Free Energy 368
18 Electrochemistry 388
19 The Nucleus: A Chemist's View 412
20 The Representative Elements 427
21 Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry 447
22 Organic and Biological Molecules 462
iii
Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
, Chapter 1
Chemical Foundations
Page in this
Section Title Study Guide
1.1 Chemistry: An Overview 1
1.2 The Scientific Method 1
1.3 Units of Measurement 2
1.4 Uncertainty in Measurement 4
1.5 Significant Figures and Calculations 5
1.6 Learning to Solve Problems Systematically 7
1.7 Dimensional Analysis 7
1.8 Temperature 11
1.9 Density 12
1.10 Classification of Matter 14
Exercises 15
Multiple Choice Questions 18
Answers to Exercises 21
This chapter will help guide your study of what it means to think like a scientist in terms of
strategy and measurement.
1.1 Chemistry: An Overview
This section considers the nature of chemistry and elements. There are several key points here:
1. Chemistry has a historical and current impact on us.
2. All of what we are and what we do is determined by the interactions of only about 100 different types of
atoms.
3. There is a “chemist’s shorthand”—a way of expressing chemical processes symbolically. We will be
learning many parts of this shorthand in the study of chemistry.
4. Science is systematic, rather than being haphazard. It is also a thoughtful undertaking, rather than one in
which we follow along blindly. Creativity in experimentation, thinking, and asking questions are the
hallmarks of our discipline.
5. Note the “Critical Thinking” question that asks you to travel back in time before the invention of the
scanning tunneling microscope, as well as the follow-up question about atoms and molecules. You will
see these critical thinking questions throughout this chapter and in the remainder of the text. The goal is
to have you think more broadly and deeply about the ideas, raise good questions about the ideas, and
relate chemistry to the world beyond.
1.2 The Scientific Method
When you finish this section you will be able to:
• List and define each of the major steps in the scientific method.
• Identify the limitations of the scientific method.
1
Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
, 2 Chapter 1
The scientific method is a general procedure by which scientists gain understanding of our universe. Structured
thinking is as applicable to biology, physics, or geology as it is to chemistry. Thoughtful work is important to any
scientific experiment.
As explained in your textbook, the scientific method is characterized by the following steps:
1. Making observations (gathering data).
2. Formulating a hypothesis. Your hypothesis gives a possible explanation of how a process occurs. It is
not the same as a fact, which is some observation or process that is so correct that it is unreasonable to
dispute. If your hypothesis survives scrutiny by many experiments, it becomes a theory.
3. Performing experiments. This is done to determine if your hypothesis has predictive value.
Example 1.2 Scientific Method
One of the most important laws in chemistry, called Boyle’s Law, states that as the pressure (P) is
increased on a gas, the volume (V) that the gas occupies will shrink proportionately, so that at a
constant temperature, PV = a constant. A chemistry student, unaware that this pressure-volume
relationship exists, sought to “discover” it. His procedure was:
a. Hypothesize that, at constant temperature, pressure increases as volume increases.
b. Run one experiment where he observes the pressure on a gas as he changes the volume.
c. His result was inconclusive, so he proposed a theory that pressure and volume of a gas are
unrelated.
d. He put away his equipment and went on to his next project.
List and explain those things that were wrong with this student’s “scientific method.”
Solution
1. He made a hypothesis based on no previous observations. A hypothesis can only be reasonable if it
is based on some real-life experience.
2. As we will see in Section 1.4, one experiment gives very little information. The student should have
performed many experiments so that sources of random error could have been eliminated.
3. He called his conclusion a theory. Hypotheses become theories only after long periods of testing to
see if the hypothesis is correct. In addition, by putting away his equipment and going on to the next
project, he did not test his own conclusions. It is always better if you can find your own mistakes
before someone else does.
Your textbook points out that scientists, just as everyone else, have biases and prejudices. Science is self-
correcting. If our hypotheses are invalid, we will eventually run enough tests to find out. The best that we
chemists and chemistry students can do is to keep asking questions about theories. Questioning represents the
best “scientific method.”
1.3 Units of Measurement
When you finish this section, you will be able to:
• List the fundamental SI units of measurement.
• List the important SI prefixes.
• Differentiate between fundamental and derived units.
The United States is the last country in the industrial world that uses the English system. To be consistent with
every other country, we are slowly adopting the International System (le Systéme International in French), or SI
System.
Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
STUDY GUIDE
, Table of Contents
Chapter Title Page
Preface v
1 Chemical Foundations 1
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 24
3 Stoichiometry 48
4 Types of Chemical Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry 82
5 Gases 115
6 Thermochemistry 142
7 Atomic Structure and Periodicity 159
8 Bonding: General Concepts 182
9 Covalent Bonding: Orbitals 209
10 Liquids and Solids 221
11 Properties of Solutions 237
12 Chemical Kinetics 258
13 Chemical Equilibrium 283
14 Acids and Bases 307
15 Acid-Base Equilibria 335
16 Solubility and Complex Ion Equilibria 357
17 Spontaneity, Entropy and Free Energy 368
18 Electrochemistry 388
19 The Nucleus: A Chemist's View 412
20 The Representative Elements 427
21 Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry 447
22 Organic and Biological Molecules 462
iii
Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
, Chapter 1
Chemical Foundations
Page in this
Section Title Study Guide
1.1 Chemistry: An Overview 1
1.2 The Scientific Method 1
1.3 Units of Measurement 2
1.4 Uncertainty in Measurement 4
1.5 Significant Figures and Calculations 5
1.6 Learning to Solve Problems Systematically 7
1.7 Dimensional Analysis 7
1.8 Temperature 11
1.9 Density 12
1.10 Classification of Matter 14
Exercises 15
Multiple Choice Questions 18
Answers to Exercises 21
This chapter will help guide your study of what it means to think like a scientist in terms of
strategy and measurement.
1.1 Chemistry: An Overview
This section considers the nature of chemistry and elements. There are several key points here:
1. Chemistry has a historical and current impact on us.
2. All of what we are and what we do is determined by the interactions of only about 100 different types of
atoms.
3. There is a “chemist’s shorthand”—a way of expressing chemical processes symbolically. We will be
learning many parts of this shorthand in the study of chemistry.
4. Science is systematic, rather than being haphazard. It is also a thoughtful undertaking, rather than one in
which we follow along blindly. Creativity in experimentation, thinking, and asking questions are the
hallmarks of our discipline.
5. Note the “Critical Thinking” question that asks you to travel back in time before the invention of the
scanning tunneling microscope, as well as the follow-up question about atoms and molecules. You will
see these critical thinking questions throughout this chapter and in the remainder of the text. The goal is
to have you think more broadly and deeply about the ideas, raise good questions about the ideas, and
relate chemistry to the world beyond.
1.2 The Scientific Method
When you finish this section you will be able to:
• List and define each of the major steps in the scientific method.
• Identify the limitations of the scientific method.
1
Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
, 2 Chapter 1
The scientific method is a general procedure by which scientists gain understanding of our universe. Structured
thinking is as applicable to biology, physics, or geology as it is to chemistry. Thoughtful work is important to any
scientific experiment.
As explained in your textbook, the scientific method is characterized by the following steps:
1. Making observations (gathering data).
2. Formulating a hypothesis. Your hypothesis gives a possible explanation of how a process occurs. It is
not the same as a fact, which is some observation or process that is so correct that it is unreasonable to
dispute. If your hypothesis survives scrutiny by many experiments, it becomes a theory.
3. Performing experiments. This is done to determine if your hypothesis has predictive value.
Example 1.2 Scientific Method
One of the most important laws in chemistry, called Boyle’s Law, states that as the pressure (P) is
increased on a gas, the volume (V) that the gas occupies will shrink proportionately, so that at a
constant temperature, PV = a constant. A chemistry student, unaware that this pressure-volume
relationship exists, sought to “discover” it. His procedure was:
a. Hypothesize that, at constant temperature, pressure increases as volume increases.
b. Run one experiment where he observes the pressure on a gas as he changes the volume.
c. His result was inconclusive, so he proposed a theory that pressure and volume of a gas are
unrelated.
d. He put away his equipment and went on to his next project.
List and explain those things that were wrong with this student’s “scientific method.”
Solution
1. He made a hypothesis based on no previous observations. A hypothesis can only be reasonable if it
is based on some real-life experience.
2. As we will see in Section 1.4, one experiment gives very little information. The student should have
performed many experiments so that sources of random error could have been eliminated.
3. He called his conclusion a theory. Hypotheses become theories only after long periods of testing to
see if the hypothesis is correct. In addition, by putting away his equipment and going on to the next
project, he did not test his own conclusions. It is always better if you can find your own mistakes
before someone else does.
Your textbook points out that scientists, just as everyone else, have biases and prejudices. Science is self-
correcting. If our hypotheses are invalid, we will eventually run enough tests to find out. The best that we
chemists and chemistry students can do is to keep asking questions about theories. Questioning represents the
best “scientific method.”
1.3 Units of Measurement
When you finish this section, you will be able to:
• List the fundamental SI units of measurement.
• List the important SI prefixes.
• Differentiate between fundamental and derived units.
The United States is the last country in the industrial world that uses the English system. To be consistent with
every other country, we are slowly adopting the International System (le Systéme International in French), or SI
System.
Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
