WGU C217 RETAKE EXAM PLAN CORRENTLY ANSWERED 2022

WGU C217 RETAKE EXAM PLAN CORRENTLY ANSWERED 2022 Some dimensions expand and others shrink MULTIDIRECTIONAL Has biological, cognitive, and socioemotional dimensions MULTIDIMENSIONAL The capacity for change plasticity Early adulthood is not the endpoint of development; no age period dominates development lifelong Various areas of study have an interest in the field of development through the life span MULTIDISCIPLINARY All development occurs within a context, or setting (social, cultural, and historic factors) CONTEXTUAL Nature refers to an organism's biological inheritance EXAMPLE OF NATURE sunflower grows in an orderly way Nurture environmental experiences EXAMPLE OF NURTURE sunflower is smashed by unfriendly environment Continuity involves gradual, cumulative change EXAMPLE OF CONTINUITY seed to tree Discontinuity distinct stages EXAMPLE OF DISCONTINUITY a child's first word Stability We become older renditions of our early experience EXAMPLE OF STABILITY many older adults continue to be good at practicing what they have learned earlier in life EXAPLE OF CHANGE older adults often show less capacity for learning new things than younger adults do CHANGE we develop into someone different from who we were at an earlier point in development Freud Psychoanalytic and Psychosocial Theories psychosexual development: oral (birth to 1.5 years), anal (1.5 to 3 years), phallic (3-6 years), latency (6 to puberty), and genital (puberty onward) Erikson Psychoanalytic and Psychosocial Theories Includes eight stages of human development. Each stage consists of a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved. Piaget COGNITIVE THEORIES Theory stating that children actively construct their understanding of the world and go through four stages of cognitive development. Vygotsky COGNITIVE THEORIES A sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development. Information processing COGNITIVE THEORIES Emphasizes that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. Central to this theory are the processes of memory and thinking. Operant conditioning Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theory B. F. Skinner: A behavior followed by a rewarding stimulus is more likely to recur, whereas a behavior followed by a punishing stimulus is less likely to recur Bandura's social cognitive model Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theory The view of psychologists who emphasize behavior, environment, and cognition as the key factors in development. Ecological theory Bronfenbrenner's environmental systems theory that focuses on five environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem Ethology Stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods. How does Erikson's theory differ from that of Freud? Erik Erikson believed that Freud misjudged some important dimensions of human development. For one thing, Erikson said we develop in psychosocial stages, rather than in psychosexual stages. According to Freud, the primary motivation for human behavior is sexual in nature; according to Erikson, it is social and reflects a desire to affiliate with other people. According to Freud, our basic personality is shaped during the first five years of life; according to Erikson, developmental change occurs throughout the life span. Thus, in terms of the early-versus-later-experience issue described earlier in the chapter, Freud viewed early experience as being far more important than later experiences, whereas Erikson emphasized the importance of both early and later experiences. Erikson's theory Trust versus mistrust Autonomy versus shame and doubt Initiative versus guilt Industry versus inferiority identity versus identity confusion Intimacy versus isolation Generativity versus stagnation Integrity versus despair STAGE ONE Erikson's theory Trust versus mistrust experienced in the first year of life STAGE TWO Erikson's theory Autonomy versus shame and doubt late infancy and toddlerhood (1 to 3 years) STAGE THREE Erikson's theory Initiative versus guilt occurs during the preschool years STAGE FOUR Erikson's theory Industry versus inferiority during the elementary school years STAGE FIVE Erikson's theory identity versus identity confusion the adolescent years STAGE SIX Erikson's theory Intimacy versus isolation During early adulthood STAGE SEVEN Erikson's theory Generativity versus stagnation middle adulthood STAGE EIGHT Erikson's theory Integrity versus despair in late adulthood PIAGETS THEORY sensorimotor stage preoperational stage concrete operational stage formal operational stage sensorimotor stage birth to about 2 years of age infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric actions preoperational stage 2 to 7 years of age children begin to go beyond simply connecting sensory information with physical action and represent the world with words, images, and drawings concrete operational stage 7 to 11 years of age children can perform operations that involve objects, and they can reason logically when the reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples formal operational stage between the ages of 11 and 15 and continues through adulthood, individuals move beyond concrete experiences and begin to think in abstract and more logical terms. As part of thinking more abstractly, adolescents develop images of ideal circumstances. They might think about what an ideal parent would be like and compare their parents to this ideal standard. They begin to entertain possibilities for the future and are fascinated with what they can be. In solving problems, they become more systematic, developing hypotheses about why something is happening the way it is and then testing these hypotheses. Descriptive Studies designed to observe and record behavior. WHEN TO USE DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH a researcher might observe the extent to which people are altruistic or aggressive toward each other. By itself, descriptive research cannot prove what causes some phenomenon, but it can reveal important information about people's behavior Correlational Research that attempts to determine the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics. WHEN TO USE CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH For example, to find out whether children of permissive parents have less self-control than other children, you would need to carefully record observations of parents' permissiveness and their children's self-control. You would then analyze these data statistically to yield a numerical measure called a correlation coefficient, which is a number based on a statistical analysis that describes the degree of association between two variables. The correlation coefficient ranges from -1.00 to +1.00. A negative number means an inverse relation. In this example, you might find an inverse correlation between permissive parenting and children's self-control with a coefficient of, say, -.30. By contrast, you might find a positive correlation of +.30 between parental monitoring of children and children's self-control. Experimental A carefully regulated procedure in which one or more of the factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held constant. WHEN TO USE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Imagine that you decide to conduct an experimental study of the effects of meditation by pregnant women on their newborns' breathing and sleeping patterns. You would randomly assign pregnant women to experimental and control groups. The experimental-group women would engage in meditation over a specified number of sessions and weeks. The control group would not. Then, when the infants are born, you would assess their breathing and sleeping patterns. If the breathing and sleeping patterns of newborns whose mothers were in the experimental group are more positive than those of the control group, you would conclude that meditation caused the positive effects. Case Study An in-depth look at a single individual. WHEN TO USE A CASE STUDY Case studies are performed mainly by mental health professionals when, for either practical or ethical reasons, the unique aspects of an individual's life cannot be duplicated and tested in other individuals. A case study provides information about one person's experiences; it may focus on nearly any aspect of the subject's life that helps the researcher understand the person's mind, behavior, or other attributes Cross-sectional A research strategy in which individuals of different ages are compared at one time. WHEN TO USE CROSS SECTIONAL RESEARCH A typical cross-sectional study might include three groups of children: 5-year-olds, 8-year-olds, and 11-year-olds. Another study might include groups of 15-year-olds, 25-year-olds, and 45-year-olds. The groups can be compared with respect to a variety of dependent variables: IQ, memory, peer relations, attachment to parents, hormonal changes, and so on. Longitudinal A research strategy in which the same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more. WHEN TO USE LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH For example, in a longitudinal study of life