CAMPBELL BIOLOGY CONCEPTS AND
CONNECTIONS COMPREHENSIVE EXAM 2026
◉ Eukaryotic Cells. Answer: Contain a true nucleus enclosed in a
membrane.
◉ Prokaryotic Cells. Answer: Do not contain a nucleus.
◉ Organelles. Answer: Suspended in semifluid cytosol. In eukaryotic
cells they are membrane bound, allowing for compartmentalization
of functions. The membranes are made of a phospholipid bilayer,
surfaces are hydrophilic, they interact with the environment.
◉ Cytosol. Answer: Allows for diffusion of molecules throughout the
cell.
◉ Nucleus. Answer: Genetic material is encoded in DNA, organized
in chromosomes. This DNA provides all the genetic material needed
for replication of the cell. It is surrounded by the nuclear membrane
or envelope, which forms a double membrane. Nuclear pores allow
for selective exchange of material between cytoplasm and the
nucleus.
,◉ Genetic Material of the Nucleus. Answer: DNA contains coding
regions called genes. Linear DNA is wound around organizing
proteins known as histones, and further wound into chromosomes.
◉ Nuclear Membrane. Answer: Contains nuclear pores that allow for
selective 2-way exchange of material between the cytoplasm and the
nucleolus
◉ Nucleolus. Answer: -Subsection of the nucleus
-Where ribosomal RNA is synthesized
-The darker spot that is 25% of the nucleus
◉ Mitochondria. Answer: Power plant of the cell. Two layers, inner
and outer membrane. The outer membrane is a barrier between the
cytosol and the inner environment of the mitochondria. The inner
membrane, made up of infoldings called cristae, contains the
molecules and enzymes necessary for the electron transport chain.
The intermembrane space separates them, creating a matrix
between them.
The pumping of protons from the matrix to the intermembrane
space creates a proton-motive force that generates ATP via protons
flowing through and turning ATP synthase (oxidative
phosphorylation). The mitochondria is semiautonomous, meaning
they replicate independently of the the nucleus via binary fission.
,They can kill the cell via release of enzymes that aid in apoptosis.
◉ Lysosomes. Answer: Membrane-bound structures containing
hydrolytic enzymes that are capable of breaking down many
different substrates, including those ingested by endocytosis and
cellular waste products.
The enzymes are sequestered to protect the cell, releasing these
enzymes causes autolysis, resulting in apoptosis...in this case, the
released enzymes directly lead to cell degradation.
◉ Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER). Answer: Interconnected
membranes that are actually contiguous with the nuclear envelope.
It is folding into complex structures with a central lumen. The Rough
ER is studded with ribosomes that permit translation of proteins
destined for secretion into the lumen.
◉ Golgi Apparatus. Answer: Stacked membrane-bound sacs that are
transferred from the ER via vesicles. The Golgi modifies the products
via addition of various groups. It modifies cellular products thought
the introduction of signal sequences, which help direct the delivery
of product to a specific cellular location. Can also send to lysosomes
for degredation
, ◉ Exocytosis. Answer: Used in secretion, when the secretory vesicle
merges with the cell membrane and its contents.
◉ Peroxisomes. Answer: Contain hydrogen peroxide. It breaks down
long chain fatty acids via beta oxidation. They help in the synthesis
of phospholipids.
◉ Cytoskeleton. Answer: Provides structure to the cell and helps it
to maintain its shape. It also provides a conduit for transport of
material around the cell.
◉ Microfilaments. Answer: Solid polymerized rods of actin
organized into bundles and networks that are resistant to
compression and fracture. They assist in cytokinesis and cleavage
furrow. Present in muscle
◉ Actin. Answer: Subunit of microfilaments, used with ATP to
generate force for movement by interacting with myosin for muscle
contraction.
◉ Microtubules. Answer: Hollow polymers of tubulin proteins that
provide a primary pathway along which motor proteins like kinesin
and dynein carry vesicles. Makes cilia and flagella. Also makes
centrioles
CONNECTIONS COMPREHENSIVE EXAM 2026
◉ Eukaryotic Cells. Answer: Contain a true nucleus enclosed in a
membrane.
◉ Prokaryotic Cells. Answer: Do not contain a nucleus.
◉ Organelles. Answer: Suspended in semifluid cytosol. In eukaryotic
cells they are membrane bound, allowing for compartmentalization
of functions. The membranes are made of a phospholipid bilayer,
surfaces are hydrophilic, they interact with the environment.
◉ Cytosol. Answer: Allows for diffusion of molecules throughout the
cell.
◉ Nucleus. Answer: Genetic material is encoded in DNA, organized
in chromosomes. This DNA provides all the genetic material needed
for replication of the cell. It is surrounded by the nuclear membrane
or envelope, which forms a double membrane. Nuclear pores allow
for selective exchange of material between cytoplasm and the
nucleus.
,◉ Genetic Material of the Nucleus. Answer: DNA contains coding
regions called genes. Linear DNA is wound around organizing
proteins known as histones, and further wound into chromosomes.
◉ Nuclear Membrane. Answer: Contains nuclear pores that allow for
selective 2-way exchange of material between the cytoplasm and the
nucleolus
◉ Nucleolus. Answer: -Subsection of the nucleus
-Where ribosomal RNA is synthesized
-The darker spot that is 25% of the nucleus
◉ Mitochondria. Answer: Power plant of the cell. Two layers, inner
and outer membrane. The outer membrane is a barrier between the
cytosol and the inner environment of the mitochondria. The inner
membrane, made up of infoldings called cristae, contains the
molecules and enzymes necessary for the electron transport chain.
The intermembrane space separates them, creating a matrix
between them.
The pumping of protons from the matrix to the intermembrane
space creates a proton-motive force that generates ATP via protons
flowing through and turning ATP synthase (oxidative
phosphorylation). The mitochondria is semiautonomous, meaning
they replicate independently of the the nucleus via binary fission.
,They can kill the cell via release of enzymes that aid in apoptosis.
◉ Lysosomes. Answer: Membrane-bound structures containing
hydrolytic enzymes that are capable of breaking down many
different substrates, including those ingested by endocytosis and
cellular waste products.
The enzymes are sequestered to protect the cell, releasing these
enzymes causes autolysis, resulting in apoptosis...in this case, the
released enzymes directly lead to cell degradation.
◉ Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER). Answer: Interconnected
membranes that are actually contiguous with the nuclear envelope.
It is folding into complex structures with a central lumen. The Rough
ER is studded with ribosomes that permit translation of proteins
destined for secretion into the lumen.
◉ Golgi Apparatus. Answer: Stacked membrane-bound sacs that are
transferred from the ER via vesicles. The Golgi modifies the products
via addition of various groups. It modifies cellular products thought
the introduction of signal sequences, which help direct the delivery
of product to a specific cellular location. Can also send to lysosomes
for degredation
, ◉ Exocytosis. Answer: Used in secretion, when the secretory vesicle
merges with the cell membrane and its contents.
◉ Peroxisomes. Answer: Contain hydrogen peroxide. It breaks down
long chain fatty acids via beta oxidation. They help in the synthesis
of phospholipids.
◉ Cytoskeleton. Answer: Provides structure to the cell and helps it
to maintain its shape. It also provides a conduit for transport of
material around the cell.
◉ Microfilaments. Answer: Solid polymerized rods of actin
organized into bundles and networks that are resistant to
compression and fracture. They assist in cytokinesis and cleavage
furrow. Present in muscle
◉ Actin. Answer: Subunit of microfilaments, used with ATP to
generate force for movement by interacting with myosin for muscle
contraction.
◉ Microtubules. Answer: Hollow polymers of tubulin proteins that
provide a primary pathway along which motor proteins like kinesin
and dynein carry vesicles. Makes cilia and flagella. Also makes
centrioles
