UPDATED NURS 5315 ADV PATHO EXAM 1 2026
QUESTIONS AND ACCURATE VERIFIED
SOLUTIONS
◉ How is the action potential altered by a potassium imbalance?
(Hyperkalemia) Answer: The ECF has more K+ ions. The membrane
potential becomes more positive (hypopolarized).
Cells become MORE excitable.
T waves peak.
QRS complexes widen.
Causes dysrhythmias, weakness, paresthesia.
{If membrane potential becomes equal to threshold potential
cardiac standstill occurs}
◉ How is the action potential altered by a potassium imbalance?
(Hypokalemia) Answer: The ECF has less K+ ions. The membrane
potential becomes more negative or hyper-polarized.
The cell becomes less excitable, depolarization takes longer, and
takes a stronger stimulus.
Causes weakness, atony, cardiac dystrhythmias.
,◉ How is the action potential altered by a calcium imbalance?
(hypercalemia) Answer: Increase in ECF calcium to >10.5 mg/dL. It
decreases the cell permeability to calcium.
The cell becomes hyperpolarized (the distance between membrane
potential and threshold potential widens).
The cell is less excitable and take more stimulus to depolarize.
Causes: weakness, hyporeflexia, lethargy, confusion, shortened QT
wave, depressed T wave.
◉ How is the action potential altered by a calcium imbalance?
(hypocalemia) Answer: Decreased ECF calcium <9.0 mg/dL. <5.5
ionized.
Increases the cell permeability to Na+. Resting membrane potential
gets hypo-polarized.
Cells become excitable and threshold and membrane potential get
closer.
Causes: tetany, hyperreflexia, parathesias, seizures, dysrhythmias.
◉ Atrophy Answer: Catabolism of intracellular organelles causing a
reduction in the intracellular contents.
The cell shrinks
-The thymus gland shrinks in childhood
-Disuse atrophy
,◉ hypertrophy Answer: Hormonal stimulation in response to
increased demand than causes an increase in cellular protien.
The cell gets larger - eventually causing the whole organ to get
larger.
-Skeletal muscle hypertrophy in the weight lifter.
-Cardiomegaly in response to hypertensive heart disease.
◉ Hyperplasia Answer: Increase in the number of growth factor cell
receptors that activate cellular proliferation. Only happens in cell
capable of mitosis.
-Increased number of cells.
-Uterine and mammary glands in pregnancy.
-Increased production of endometrial cells due to
estrogen/progesterone imbalance.
◉ Dysplasia Answer: abnormal changes in cell size, shape or
organization in response to cell injury or irritation.
Not a true adaptive process.
-Cervical dysplasia.
◉ Metaplasia Answer: Mature cell type is replaced by a different
mature cell type.
-Reversible, but can induce metestatic change.
, -Result of chronic stressor to the cell.
-Chronic smokers who loose normal ciliated epithelial cells
(columnar) and the cells are replaced with squamous cells.
-Barrett's esophagus: Normal esophogeal epithelial cells are
replaced with columnar type cells that are more like the intestine to
withstand the acidity of reflux.
◉ hypoxic injury Answer: Most common type of cellular injury.
Caused by lack of oxygen, loss of hemoglobin, decrease in RBC
production, cardiopulmonary disease, ischemia and inflammation.
Causes mitochondrial disfunction ↓ decreased ATP production, ↑
anaerobic metabolism, metabolism ceases, cell dies.
-Ischemia progresses to hypoxia. Causes intracellular enzymes to
show up in labs.
-Creatinine kinase - indicates muscle injury.
-LDH - muscle, liver, lungs, heart, RBCs and brain.
-AST - liver cells
-ALT - liver cells
-Troponin - heart
◉ Reperfusion injury Answer: Occurs when O2 supply is restored to
ischemic tissues.
Causes pH alterations.
QUESTIONS AND ACCURATE VERIFIED
SOLUTIONS
◉ How is the action potential altered by a potassium imbalance?
(Hyperkalemia) Answer: The ECF has more K+ ions. The membrane
potential becomes more positive (hypopolarized).
Cells become MORE excitable.
T waves peak.
QRS complexes widen.
Causes dysrhythmias, weakness, paresthesia.
{If membrane potential becomes equal to threshold potential
cardiac standstill occurs}
◉ How is the action potential altered by a potassium imbalance?
(Hypokalemia) Answer: The ECF has less K+ ions. The membrane
potential becomes more negative or hyper-polarized.
The cell becomes less excitable, depolarization takes longer, and
takes a stronger stimulus.
Causes weakness, atony, cardiac dystrhythmias.
,◉ How is the action potential altered by a calcium imbalance?
(hypercalemia) Answer: Increase in ECF calcium to >10.5 mg/dL. It
decreases the cell permeability to calcium.
The cell becomes hyperpolarized (the distance between membrane
potential and threshold potential widens).
The cell is less excitable and take more stimulus to depolarize.
Causes: weakness, hyporeflexia, lethargy, confusion, shortened QT
wave, depressed T wave.
◉ How is the action potential altered by a calcium imbalance?
(hypocalemia) Answer: Decreased ECF calcium <9.0 mg/dL. <5.5
ionized.
Increases the cell permeability to Na+. Resting membrane potential
gets hypo-polarized.
Cells become excitable and threshold and membrane potential get
closer.
Causes: tetany, hyperreflexia, parathesias, seizures, dysrhythmias.
◉ Atrophy Answer: Catabolism of intracellular organelles causing a
reduction in the intracellular contents.
The cell shrinks
-The thymus gland shrinks in childhood
-Disuse atrophy
,◉ hypertrophy Answer: Hormonal stimulation in response to
increased demand than causes an increase in cellular protien.
The cell gets larger - eventually causing the whole organ to get
larger.
-Skeletal muscle hypertrophy in the weight lifter.
-Cardiomegaly in response to hypertensive heart disease.
◉ Hyperplasia Answer: Increase in the number of growth factor cell
receptors that activate cellular proliferation. Only happens in cell
capable of mitosis.
-Increased number of cells.
-Uterine and mammary glands in pregnancy.
-Increased production of endometrial cells due to
estrogen/progesterone imbalance.
◉ Dysplasia Answer: abnormal changes in cell size, shape or
organization in response to cell injury or irritation.
Not a true adaptive process.
-Cervical dysplasia.
◉ Metaplasia Answer: Mature cell type is replaced by a different
mature cell type.
-Reversible, but can induce metestatic change.
, -Result of chronic stressor to the cell.
-Chronic smokers who loose normal ciliated epithelial cells
(columnar) and the cells are replaced with squamous cells.
-Barrett's esophagus: Normal esophogeal epithelial cells are
replaced with columnar type cells that are more like the intestine to
withstand the acidity of reflux.
◉ hypoxic injury Answer: Most common type of cellular injury.
Caused by lack of oxygen, loss of hemoglobin, decrease in RBC
production, cardiopulmonary disease, ischemia and inflammation.
Causes mitochondrial disfunction ↓ decreased ATP production, ↑
anaerobic metabolism, metabolism ceases, cell dies.
-Ischemia progresses to hypoxia. Causes intracellular enzymes to
show up in labs.
-Creatinine kinase - indicates muscle injury.
-LDH - muscle, liver, lungs, heart, RBCs and brain.
-AST - liver cells
-ALT - liver cells
-Troponin - heart
◉ Reperfusion injury Answer: Occurs when O2 supply is restored to
ischemic tissues.
Causes pH alterations.
