Health Behavior Etiology and Promotion Among Young Persons
Evaluation & the Health Professions
2017, Vol. 40(4) 383-400
ª The Author(s) 2016
Emerging Reprints and permission:
sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
Adulthood: DOI: 10.1177/0163278716663602
journals.sagepub.com/home/ehp
A Time of Changes
in Psychosocial
Well-Being
Stéphanie Baggio1, Joseph Studer2, Katia Iglesias3,
Jean-Bernard Daeppen2, and Gerhard Gmel2,4,5,6
Abstract
The principal aim of this study was to investigate the psychosocial well-being
of emerging adults using psychological states associated with this transi-
tional phase and classic measures of emerging adulthood. We expected
psychological states to be more closely associated with psychological well-
being than classic markers of achieved adulthood. Data were collected in
the Cohort Study on Substance Use Risk Factors from 4,991 Swiss men
aged 18–25 years. The assessment included the Short Form of the Inventory
1
Life Course and Social Inequality Research Centre, University of Lausanne, Lausanne,
Switzerland
2
Alcohol Treatment Centre, Lausanne University Hospital CHUV, Lausanne, Switzerland
3
Centre for the Understanding of Social Processes, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel,
Switzerland
4
Addiction Switzerland, Lausanne, Switzerland
5
Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
6
University of the West of England, Bristol, UK
Corresponding Author:
Stéphanie Baggio, Life Course and Social Inequality Research Centre, University of Lausanne,
Geopolis Building, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
Email:
,384 Evaluation & the Health Professions 40(4)
of Dimensions of Emerging Adulthood (IDEA-8), classic markers of achieved
adulthood (e.g., financial independence, stable relationship), and psychosocial
well-being. Structural equation models (SEMs) were conducted to test
the association between measures of emerging adulthood and psychosocial
well-being. Overall, the results highlighted contrasting associations of mea-
sures of emerging adulthood and psychosocial well-being. Youths facing
negative psychological states (dimension ‘‘negativity’’) and exploring life
without knowing how to define themselves (dimension ‘‘identity explora-
tion’’) had a decreased psychosocial well-being. On the contrary, youths
exploring many opportunities with an optimistic perspective (dimension
‘‘experimentation’’) had an increased psychosocial well-being. By contrast,
classic markers of adulthood were less related to psychosocial well-being.
The IDEA-8 Scale appeared to be a useful screening tool for identifying
vulnerable youths, and emerging adulthood should be measured with a focus
on the psychological states associated with this period. This information may
be valuable for mental health systems that have not yet adapted to emerging
adults’ needs.
Keywords
at-risk population, measurement, health behavior, mental health, transition
to adulthood, well-being
Over the past two decades, emerging adulthood has gained considerable
attention in public health research. Indeed, life transitions imply major
changes in contexts and social roles, which can contribute to alterations
in mental health and psychopathology (Schulenberg, Sameroff, & Cicchetti,
2004). The association between emerging adulthood and psychological
correlates thus became a major health concern. Regarding psychological
well-being and mental health, emerging adults are especially at risk for
psychiatric disorders (Kessler et al., 2005), such as mood and personality
disorders (Baldwin et al., 2005; Blanco et al., 2008; Kessler et al., 2005) as
evidenced by a 12-month prevalence of any psychiatric disorder up to 40%
in the United States (Arnett, Žukauskien_e, & Sugimura, 2014). However,
the direction of results depends on the way in which emerging adulthood is
measured. Therefore, there is an important gap in the understanding of
emerging adulthood’s predictors of health outcomes, and data are needed
to shed light on this crucial time period. This study aims to investigate how
different psychological states develop during emerging adulthood and to
compare them to other classic measures of adulthood.
, Baggio et al. 385
Classic Measures of Emerging Adulthood: Associations
With Psychosocial Well-Being
Most studies have measured emerging adulthood with markers of adulthood
achievements, that is, the ‘‘big five’’ social roles—educational attainment,
employment, residential independence, partnership, and parenthood (Set-
tersten, 2007). These studies have generally shown that emerging adulthood
is a time of improved psychosocial well-being and healthy lifestyle. For
example, the level of depression decreases, whereas well-being and social
support increase (Galambos, Barker, & Krahn, 2006; Messersmith & Schu-
lenberg, 2010; Pettit, Roberts, Lewinsohn, Seeley, & Yaroslavsky, 2011).
However, these markers measure accomplished adulthood, that is, when the
transition to adulthood is completed, and therefore may fail to identify
emerging adulthood and its related psychological states.
More recent studies have filled this gap and have investigated different
patterns of social role configurations in early adulthood (Schulenberg &
Schoon, 2012), such completed education with unemployment or employ-
ment and living with parents. These studies have shown that individuals with
incomplete transitions or who are still negotiating transitions had lower levels
of psychosocial well-being (Conley, Kirsch, Dickson, & Bryant, 2014;
Salmela-Aro, Taanila, Ek, & Chen, 2012). This contradicts studies using
markers of adulthood that focus on completed transitions to adulthood.
Transitions to adulthood are no longer thought to be linear sequences.
Indeed, youths’ transitions to adult social roles are characterized by dis-
continuities and reversals (Seiffge-Krenke, 2013). Because such transition
patterns are multiple, using social roles to assess emerging adulthood may
become challenging. Moreover, emerging adults remain somewhat inde-
pendent from social roles and normative expectations (Arnett, 2000). As a
result, classic adulthood markers may not capture the ambivalence inherent
to emerging adulthood (Nelson & Barry, 2005). In other words, the fact that
markers of achieved adulthood can be identified in some youths does not
necessarily mean that these youths consider themselves adults. Few studies
have specifically investigated psychological states rather than social roles to
study the transition to adulthood (Reifman, Colwell, & Arnett, 2007) and its
association with psychosocial well-being.
Psychological States During Emerging Adulthood
Arnett (2004a, 2004b) proposed five distinct dimensions related to psycho-
logical states in emerging adulthood: ‘‘identity exploration,’’
Evaluation & the Health Professions
2017, Vol. 40(4) 383-400
ª The Author(s) 2016
Emerging Reprints and permission:
sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
Adulthood: DOI: 10.1177/0163278716663602
journals.sagepub.com/home/ehp
A Time of Changes
in Psychosocial
Well-Being
Stéphanie Baggio1, Joseph Studer2, Katia Iglesias3,
Jean-Bernard Daeppen2, and Gerhard Gmel2,4,5,6
Abstract
The principal aim of this study was to investigate the psychosocial well-being
of emerging adults using psychological states associated with this transi-
tional phase and classic measures of emerging adulthood. We expected
psychological states to be more closely associated with psychological well-
being than classic markers of achieved adulthood. Data were collected in
the Cohort Study on Substance Use Risk Factors from 4,991 Swiss men
aged 18–25 years. The assessment included the Short Form of the Inventory
1
Life Course and Social Inequality Research Centre, University of Lausanne, Lausanne,
Switzerland
2
Alcohol Treatment Centre, Lausanne University Hospital CHUV, Lausanne, Switzerland
3
Centre for the Understanding of Social Processes, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel,
Switzerland
4
Addiction Switzerland, Lausanne, Switzerland
5
Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
6
University of the West of England, Bristol, UK
Corresponding Author:
Stéphanie Baggio, Life Course and Social Inequality Research Centre, University of Lausanne,
Geopolis Building, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
Email:
,384 Evaluation & the Health Professions 40(4)
of Dimensions of Emerging Adulthood (IDEA-8), classic markers of achieved
adulthood (e.g., financial independence, stable relationship), and psychosocial
well-being. Structural equation models (SEMs) were conducted to test
the association between measures of emerging adulthood and psychosocial
well-being. Overall, the results highlighted contrasting associations of mea-
sures of emerging adulthood and psychosocial well-being. Youths facing
negative psychological states (dimension ‘‘negativity’’) and exploring life
without knowing how to define themselves (dimension ‘‘identity explora-
tion’’) had a decreased psychosocial well-being. On the contrary, youths
exploring many opportunities with an optimistic perspective (dimension
‘‘experimentation’’) had an increased psychosocial well-being. By contrast,
classic markers of adulthood were less related to psychosocial well-being.
The IDEA-8 Scale appeared to be a useful screening tool for identifying
vulnerable youths, and emerging adulthood should be measured with a focus
on the psychological states associated with this period. This information may
be valuable for mental health systems that have not yet adapted to emerging
adults’ needs.
Keywords
at-risk population, measurement, health behavior, mental health, transition
to adulthood, well-being
Over the past two decades, emerging adulthood has gained considerable
attention in public health research. Indeed, life transitions imply major
changes in contexts and social roles, which can contribute to alterations
in mental health and psychopathology (Schulenberg, Sameroff, & Cicchetti,
2004). The association between emerging adulthood and psychological
correlates thus became a major health concern. Regarding psychological
well-being and mental health, emerging adults are especially at risk for
psychiatric disorders (Kessler et al., 2005), such as mood and personality
disorders (Baldwin et al., 2005; Blanco et al., 2008; Kessler et al., 2005) as
evidenced by a 12-month prevalence of any psychiatric disorder up to 40%
in the United States (Arnett, Žukauskien_e, & Sugimura, 2014). However,
the direction of results depends on the way in which emerging adulthood is
measured. Therefore, there is an important gap in the understanding of
emerging adulthood’s predictors of health outcomes, and data are needed
to shed light on this crucial time period. This study aims to investigate how
different psychological states develop during emerging adulthood and to
compare them to other classic measures of adulthood.
, Baggio et al. 385
Classic Measures of Emerging Adulthood: Associations
With Psychosocial Well-Being
Most studies have measured emerging adulthood with markers of adulthood
achievements, that is, the ‘‘big five’’ social roles—educational attainment,
employment, residential independence, partnership, and parenthood (Set-
tersten, 2007). These studies have generally shown that emerging adulthood
is a time of improved psychosocial well-being and healthy lifestyle. For
example, the level of depression decreases, whereas well-being and social
support increase (Galambos, Barker, & Krahn, 2006; Messersmith & Schu-
lenberg, 2010; Pettit, Roberts, Lewinsohn, Seeley, & Yaroslavsky, 2011).
However, these markers measure accomplished adulthood, that is, when the
transition to adulthood is completed, and therefore may fail to identify
emerging adulthood and its related psychological states.
More recent studies have filled this gap and have investigated different
patterns of social role configurations in early adulthood (Schulenberg &
Schoon, 2012), such completed education with unemployment or employ-
ment and living with parents. These studies have shown that individuals with
incomplete transitions or who are still negotiating transitions had lower levels
of psychosocial well-being (Conley, Kirsch, Dickson, & Bryant, 2014;
Salmela-Aro, Taanila, Ek, & Chen, 2012). This contradicts studies using
markers of adulthood that focus on completed transitions to adulthood.
Transitions to adulthood are no longer thought to be linear sequences.
Indeed, youths’ transitions to adult social roles are characterized by dis-
continuities and reversals (Seiffge-Krenke, 2013). Because such transition
patterns are multiple, using social roles to assess emerging adulthood may
become challenging. Moreover, emerging adults remain somewhat inde-
pendent from social roles and normative expectations (Arnett, 2000). As a
result, classic adulthood markers may not capture the ambivalence inherent
to emerging adulthood (Nelson & Barry, 2005). In other words, the fact that
markers of achieved adulthood can be identified in some youths does not
necessarily mean that these youths consider themselves adults. Few studies
have specifically investigated psychological states rather than social roles to
study the transition to adulthood (Reifman, Colwell, & Arnett, 2007) and its
association with psychosocial well-being.
Psychological States During Emerging Adulthood
Arnett (2004a, 2004b) proposed five distinct dimensions related to psycho-
logical states in emerging adulthood: ‘‘identity exploration,’’
