BIO 225 ALL COMPREHENSIVE EXAM 2025/2026
QUESTIONS AND SOLUTIONS GRADED A+ TIP
✔✔Histiocytes - ✔✔-resident macrophages
✔✔Process of Phagocytosis - ✔✔Recognition, engulfment and killing
-Chemotaxis - taxi to the site
-adhesion - obvi
-engulfment
-killing
-destruction
-elimination
✔✔Chemotaxis - ✔✔-when phagocytes migrate into a region of inflammation. Attracted
by inflammatory chemicals
✔✔Adhesion - ✔✔-when the phagocytes stick to the recognized host cell
✔✔Engulfment - ✔✔- and phagosome formation is when a phagocyte extends its
pseudopods that encloses the cell and internalize thin in a vacuole called a phagosome
✔✔Killing - ✔✔phagolysosome formation and killing is when lysosomes migrate to the
scene and fuse to the phagosome. granules of antimicrobial chemical are released into
the phagosome
✔✔Destruction - ✔✔is when two separate systems of destructive chemicals await the
microbes in the phagolysosome
✔✔Elimination - ✔✔is when the small bits of undigestible debris are released from the
macrophage by exocytosis
✔✔PAMPs - ✔✔Pathogen-associated molecular patterns
✔✔Pathogen-associated molecular patterns - ✔✔-these are molecules shared by many
microorganisms and serve as red flags for phagocytes and other cells of innate
immunity. -including peptidoglycan and lipopolysaccharide
✔✔PRR's - ✔✔Pattern Recognition Receptors
✔✔Pattern Recognition Receptors - ✔✔-dendritic cells, epithelial cells, and more have
PRR on their surfaces that recognize and bind to PAMP's
-Found on phagocytes, dendritic cells, endothelial cells and lymphocytes
,✔✔The inflammatory response - ✔✔Easily identifiable by a classic series of signs and
symptoms
-loss of function my or may not occur
-can be local or systemic
-acute or chronic
✔✔Rubor - ✔✔Redness caused by increased circulation and vasodilatation in the
injured tissue
✔✔Calor - ✔✔warmth caused by the heat given off by the increased flow of blood
✔✔tumor - ✔✔swelling caused by fluid escaping into the tissue
✔✔dolor - ✔✔pain caused by the stimulation of nerve ending
✔✔Factors that elicit inflammation - ✔✔-Traumas from infection
- tissue injury or necrosis
-adaptive immune reactions
✔✔Chief functions of inflammation - ✔✔-to mobilize and attract immune components to
the site of injury
-to set in motion mechanisms to repair tissue damage and localizes and clear away
harmful substances
-to destroy microbes and block their further invasion
✔✔Peristalsis - ✔✔moves things through the bladder, gut, vaginal secretions etc.
✔✔Antigen - ✔✔anything foreign that causes your body to make antibodies
✔✔Proteins that fight off microbes - ✔✔interferon, complement cascade
✔✔Antigen presenting cells (APCs) - ✔✔Macrophage, dendritic or B cells
-process and present along cell membrane surface
✔✔lymphocytes - ✔✔B cells and T cells
B cells are antibodies
✔✔Pyrogens - ✔✔substances that rest the hypothalamic thermostat to a higher setting
-can come from pyrogenic microorganisms or from polymorphonuclear leukocytes
exogenous pyrogens - originating outside the body such as bacteria and viruses
endogenous pyrogens - originating inside the body such as neutrophils and
macrophages
, ✔✔Stages of inflammation - ✔✔-injury - is when early changes occur in the vasculature
in the vicinity of the damaged tissue
-vascular reaction - when the blood vessels in the vicinity dilate
-edema and pus formation - when swelling and white blood cells and debris generated
by phagocytosis accumulate at the injured site
-resolution and scar formation - tissue regenerates or scar tissue takes its place
✔✔Fever - ✔✔abnormally elevated body temp.
100F is the most widely accepted temp for being considered a fever
very common sign of infection
✔✔benefits of a fever - ✔✔-inhibits multiplication of temperature sensitive
microorganisms
-interferes with the nutrition of bacteria by reducing the availability of iron
-increases metabolism and stimulates immune reactions and naturally protective
physiologically processes
✔✔Treatment of fever - ✔✔allow is to run its course in light of potential benefits unless
prolonged, high, fevers or in individuals with cardiovascular disease, seizures or
respiratory ailments.
✔✔Side effects of fever - ✔✔-rapid heart beat
-elevated respiratory rate
-lowering of seizure threshold
✔✔Interferon - ✔✔small proteins naturally produced by certain cells
-have tumor suppressor effect, stimulate phagocytes,
-regulate T and B cells,
-prevent replication of viral particles in host cells
-When interferons bind to the second cell that produces protein that inhibits viral
multiplication
-interferons also induce production of other proteins that combat infection
-not microbe specific
✔✔Complement - ✔✔-30+ blood proteins that work together to primarily destroy
bacteria but also effect viruses and other parasites
-cascade reaction = first substance in a chemical series activated the next substance
which activates the next and so one
✔✔Formation of a membrane attack complex - ✔✔a group of proteins that insert
themselves into bacterial or infected cell membranes as a result of complement
activation
QUESTIONS AND SOLUTIONS GRADED A+ TIP
✔✔Histiocytes - ✔✔-resident macrophages
✔✔Process of Phagocytosis - ✔✔Recognition, engulfment and killing
-Chemotaxis - taxi to the site
-adhesion - obvi
-engulfment
-killing
-destruction
-elimination
✔✔Chemotaxis - ✔✔-when phagocytes migrate into a region of inflammation. Attracted
by inflammatory chemicals
✔✔Adhesion - ✔✔-when the phagocytes stick to the recognized host cell
✔✔Engulfment - ✔✔- and phagosome formation is when a phagocyte extends its
pseudopods that encloses the cell and internalize thin in a vacuole called a phagosome
✔✔Killing - ✔✔phagolysosome formation and killing is when lysosomes migrate to the
scene and fuse to the phagosome. granules of antimicrobial chemical are released into
the phagosome
✔✔Destruction - ✔✔is when two separate systems of destructive chemicals await the
microbes in the phagolysosome
✔✔Elimination - ✔✔is when the small bits of undigestible debris are released from the
macrophage by exocytosis
✔✔PAMPs - ✔✔Pathogen-associated molecular patterns
✔✔Pathogen-associated molecular patterns - ✔✔-these are molecules shared by many
microorganisms and serve as red flags for phagocytes and other cells of innate
immunity. -including peptidoglycan and lipopolysaccharide
✔✔PRR's - ✔✔Pattern Recognition Receptors
✔✔Pattern Recognition Receptors - ✔✔-dendritic cells, epithelial cells, and more have
PRR on their surfaces that recognize and bind to PAMP's
-Found on phagocytes, dendritic cells, endothelial cells and lymphocytes
,✔✔The inflammatory response - ✔✔Easily identifiable by a classic series of signs and
symptoms
-loss of function my or may not occur
-can be local or systemic
-acute or chronic
✔✔Rubor - ✔✔Redness caused by increased circulation and vasodilatation in the
injured tissue
✔✔Calor - ✔✔warmth caused by the heat given off by the increased flow of blood
✔✔tumor - ✔✔swelling caused by fluid escaping into the tissue
✔✔dolor - ✔✔pain caused by the stimulation of nerve ending
✔✔Factors that elicit inflammation - ✔✔-Traumas from infection
- tissue injury or necrosis
-adaptive immune reactions
✔✔Chief functions of inflammation - ✔✔-to mobilize and attract immune components to
the site of injury
-to set in motion mechanisms to repair tissue damage and localizes and clear away
harmful substances
-to destroy microbes and block their further invasion
✔✔Peristalsis - ✔✔moves things through the bladder, gut, vaginal secretions etc.
✔✔Antigen - ✔✔anything foreign that causes your body to make antibodies
✔✔Proteins that fight off microbes - ✔✔interferon, complement cascade
✔✔Antigen presenting cells (APCs) - ✔✔Macrophage, dendritic or B cells
-process and present along cell membrane surface
✔✔lymphocytes - ✔✔B cells and T cells
B cells are antibodies
✔✔Pyrogens - ✔✔substances that rest the hypothalamic thermostat to a higher setting
-can come from pyrogenic microorganisms or from polymorphonuclear leukocytes
exogenous pyrogens - originating outside the body such as bacteria and viruses
endogenous pyrogens - originating inside the body such as neutrophils and
macrophages
, ✔✔Stages of inflammation - ✔✔-injury - is when early changes occur in the vasculature
in the vicinity of the damaged tissue
-vascular reaction - when the blood vessels in the vicinity dilate
-edema and pus formation - when swelling and white blood cells and debris generated
by phagocytosis accumulate at the injured site
-resolution and scar formation - tissue regenerates or scar tissue takes its place
✔✔Fever - ✔✔abnormally elevated body temp.
100F is the most widely accepted temp for being considered a fever
very common sign of infection
✔✔benefits of a fever - ✔✔-inhibits multiplication of temperature sensitive
microorganisms
-interferes with the nutrition of bacteria by reducing the availability of iron
-increases metabolism and stimulates immune reactions and naturally protective
physiologically processes
✔✔Treatment of fever - ✔✔allow is to run its course in light of potential benefits unless
prolonged, high, fevers or in individuals with cardiovascular disease, seizures or
respiratory ailments.
✔✔Side effects of fever - ✔✔-rapid heart beat
-elevated respiratory rate
-lowering of seizure threshold
✔✔Interferon - ✔✔small proteins naturally produced by certain cells
-have tumor suppressor effect, stimulate phagocytes,
-regulate T and B cells,
-prevent replication of viral particles in host cells
-When interferons bind to the second cell that produces protein that inhibits viral
multiplication
-interferons also induce production of other proteins that combat infection
-not microbe specific
✔✔Complement - ✔✔-30+ blood proteins that work together to primarily destroy
bacteria but also effect viruses and other parasites
-cascade reaction = first substance in a chemical series activated the next substance
which activates the next and so one
✔✔Formation of a membrane attack complex - ✔✔a group of proteins that insert
themselves into bacterial or infected cell membranes as a result of complement
activation
