HUBS 191 Final Exam Questions and Answers Fully Solved Latest Update 2025-2026
Centeral nervous system - Answers made up of the brain and the spinal cord
peripheral nervous system - Answers made up of the peripheral nerves and ganglia
Neurons - Answers specialised in structure and function for transmission of information
Morphological types of neurons - Answers multipolar, bipolar, unipolar, anaxonic
Glia cells - Answers support, nourish and protect neurons
Dendrites - Answers Receive input and send info to the cell body
Cell body - Answers Contains nucleus and organelles, contains lots of rER to make proteins
Axon hillock - Answers Location where inputs are summated before actin potential
Axon - Answers carries electrical impulses, can be myelinated or unmyelinated
Axon terminal - Answers end of axon and where the neurotransmitter is released
nucleus - Answers group of cell bodies
tract - Answers bundle of axons
grey matter - Answers group of cell bodies or soma in the cerebral cortex or the spinal cord
white matter - Answers bundle of axons in the cerebral cortex or the spinal cord
ganglion - Answers group of cell bodies
nerve - Answers bundle of axons
input zones - Answers recieves chemical signal from other neurons (dendricytes and cell body)
summation zone - Answers sums up input (axon hillock)
Conduction zone - Answers carry electrical signals (between brain to/from spinal cord or from
periphery sensory receptors to/from effector cells )
Output zone - Answers make contact with input zone of other neurons (or effectors) and release
the neurotransmitter
Glia - Answers make up the majority of the brain. 5 morphological types
Astrocytes - Answers supply nutrients to neurons by covering capillaries, bind together to
minimise damage as a response to injury
Microglia - Answers immune cells in CNS, engulf organisms and clean up debris and
,malfunctioning cells
Ependymal cells - Answers line fluid filled spaces and have cilia that circulate cerebral spinal
fluid (in the brain and in the spinal cord)
Oligodendrocytes - Answers support nerve fibres and ensheath them with myelin
Schwann cells - Answers Located in the peripheral nervous system. Support the nerve fibres and
ensheath them with myelin.
Myelin sheath - Answers lipid (fat) wrapped around the axon which increases the velocity of
conduction
Somatic - Answers aware of and have control over
Somatic afferent - Answers sensory infromation that we are aware of
Somatic efferent - Answers voluntary muscle control
Autonomic - Answers not aware of and no control over
Autonomic efferent - Answers involuntary muscle control
autonomic afferent - Answers sensory information that we are unaware of.
Somatic efferent nervous system - Answers upper motor neuron: cell body in brain, axon in the
spinal cord. Lower motor neuron, cell body in spinal cord, axon in spinal nerve. Acetylcholine is
neurotransmitter used to signal
Autonomic efferent nervous system - Answers Neuron #2 has cell body in the CNS, axon is in
the PNS. This neuron is myelinated and synapse with unmyelinated neuron #3 occurs in the
autonomic ganglion. Neuron #3 had cell body in PNS and axon in PNS to effector where it
synapses on.
Synapse in Autonomic Efferent NS - Answers at autonomic ganglion this is acetylcholine, but at
the effector this is acetylcholine or norepinephrine
sympathetic autonomic nervous system - Answers uses norepinephrine in synapse, prepares
body for stress responses.
Sympathetic autonomic nervous system effects - Answers Increases heart rate, pupil dilation
and sweat. Decreases gastric motility and saturation. Constricts blood vessels.
structure of sympathetic autonomic nervous system - Answers myelinated axon #2 is shorter,
unmyelinated axon is longer. Sympathetic ganglion is closer to the CNS.
parasympathetic nervous system - Answers synapse only uses acetylcholine. Prepares the body
for restful situations
, Parasympathetic Nervous system effects - Answers decreases heart rate and pupil size,
increases gastric motility and salivation
parasympathetic structure - Answers myelinated axon #2 is longer, unmyelinated axon #3 is
shorter, parasympathetic ganglion is further away from the CNS
chemical signal to electrical signal - Answers neurotransmitter binds to the binding site, causing
the channel to change shape and open. This allows ions to flow in or out , allowing ions to flow
in and out. Voltage begins to change and if it changes to -60mV an action potential will occur.
Voltage gated channels - Answers these open when the chanels sense a large change in voltage.
Depolarized to threshold voltage (-60mV) there are two gates so three states in which the
channels can be in.
Mechanically gated ion channels - Answers stimulus is deformation of the membrane. When
membrane returns to its original shape, the channels will close.
Dendrites and cell body channels - Answers Chemically gated neuron channels (Na+ and K+)
Axon hillock and axon channels - Answers Voltage gated Ca 2+ channels open
RMP - Answers intracellular space is more negatively charged than extracellular fluid. (ICS high
K+, low Na+. ECF high Na+, low K+)
Local potentials - Answers change in voltage in a specific area of a cell. Two forms are
excitatory and inhibitory
Excitatory presynaptic neurons - Answers Excitatory presynaptic neurons release excitatory
neurons which bind to chemically gated Na+ channels. This causes the release of Na+ into the
post synaptic cell causing depolarization
Inhibitory presynaptic neurons - Answers inhibitory presynaptic neurons release inhibitory
neuron that binds to chemically gated Cl- or K+ channels, this causes K+ or Cl- to be released
into the postsynaptic cell causing it to become hyperpolarized (more negative)
Spatial summation - Answers summed input from multiple pre synaptic neurons
Temporal summation - Answers summed input from the repeated firing of one presynaptic
neuron.
Summation - Answers Summation occurs at the axon hillock as there are a large number of
voltage gated channels and the threshold potential is -60mV, so voltage gated channels can be
opened.
Action potential - Answers When membrane depolarises to -60mV, the Na+ channels open, Na+
rushes in and rapid depolarization phase of action potential occurs. At roughly 30mV the
channels close and the K+ channels open. K+ exits causing rapid repolarization. Slowly the K+
Centeral nervous system - Answers made up of the brain and the spinal cord
peripheral nervous system - Answers made up of the peripheral nerves and ganglia
Neurons - Answers specialised in structure and function for transmission of information
Morphological types of neurons - Answers multipolar, bipolar, unipolar, anaxonic
Glia cells - Answers support, nourish and protect neurons
Dendrites - Answers Receive input and send info to the cell body
Cell body - Answers Contains nucleus and organelles, contains lots of rER to make proteins
Axon hillock - Answers Location where inputs are summated before actin potential
Axon - Answers carries electrical impulses, can be myelinated or unmyelinated
Axon terminal - Answers end of axon and where the neurotransmitter is released
nucleus - Answers group of cell bodies
tract - Answers bundle of axons
grey matter - Answers group of cell bodies or soma in the cerebral cortex or the spinal cord
white matter - Answers bundle of axons in the cerebral cortex or the spinal cord
ganglion - Answers group of cell bodies
nerve - Answers bundle of axons
input zones - Answers recieves chemical signal from other neurons (dendricytes and cell body)
summation zone - Answers sums up input (axon hillock)
Conduction zone - Answers carry electrical signals (between brain to/from spinal cord or from
periphery sensory receptors to/from effector cells )
Output zone - Answers make contact with input zone of other neurons (or effectors) and release
the neurotransmitter
Glia - Answers make up the majority of the brain. 5 morphological types
Astrocytes - Answers supply nutrients to neurons by covering capillaries, bind together to
minimise damage as a response to injury
Microglia - Answers immune cells in CNS, engulf organisms and clean up debris and
,malfunctioning cells
Ependymal cells - Answers line fluid filled spaces and have cilia that circulate cerebral spinal
fluid (in the brain and in the spinal cord)
Oligodendrocytes - Answers support nerve fibres and ensheath them with myelin
Schwann cells - Answers Located in the peripheral nervous system. Support the nerve fibres and
ensheath them with myelin.
Myelin sheath - Answers lipid (fat) wrapped around the axon which increases the velocity of
conduction
Somatic - Answers aware of and have control over
Somatic afferent - Answers sensory infromation that we are aware of
Somatic efferent - Answers voluntary muscle control
Autonomic - Answers not aware of and no control over
Autonomic efferent - Answers involuntary muscle control
autonomic afferent - Answers sensory information that we are unaware of.
Somatic efferent nervous system - Answers upper motor neuron: cell body in brain, axon in the
spinal cord. Lower motor neuron, cell body in spinal cord, axon in spinal nerve. Acetylcholine is
neurotransmitter used to signal
Autonomic efferent nervous system - Answers Neuron #2 has cell body in the CNS, axon is in
the PNS. This neuron is myelinated and synapse with unmyelinated neuron #3 occurs in the
autonomic ganglion. Neuron #3 had cell body in PNS and axon in PNS to effector where it
synapses on.
Synapse in Autonomic Efferent NS - Answers at autonomic ganglion this is acetylcholine, but at
the effector this is acetylcholine or norepinephrine
sympathetic autonomic nervous system - Answers uses norepinephrine in synapse, prepares
body for stress responses.
Sympathetic autonomic nervous system effects - Answers Increases heart rate, pupil dilation
and sweat. Decreases gastric motility and saturation. Constricts blood vessels.
structure of sympathetic autonomic nervous system - Answers myelinated axon #2 is shorter,
unmyelinated axon is longer. Sympathetic ganglion is closer to the CNS.
parasympathetic nervous system - Answers synapse only uses acetylcholine. Prepares the body
for restful situations
, Parasympathetic Nervous system effects - Answers decreases heart rate and pupil size,
increases gastric motility and salivation
parasympathetic structure - Answers myelinated axon #2 is longer, unmyelinated axon #3 is
shorter, parasympathetic ganglion is further away from the CNS
chemical signal to electrical signal - Answers neurotransmitter binds to the binding site, causing
the channel to change shape and open. This allows ions to flow in or out , allowing ions to flow
in and out. Voltage begins to change and if it changes to -60mV an action potential will occur.
Voltage gated channels - Answers these open when the chanels sense a large change in voltage.
Depolarized to threshold voltage (-60mV) there are two gates so three states in which the
channels can be in.
Mechanically gated ion channels - Answers stimulus is deformation of the membrane. When
membrane returns to its original shape, the channels will close.
Dendrites and cell body channels - Answers Chemically gated neuron channels (Na+ and K+)
Axon hillock and axon channels - Answers Voltage gated Ca 2+ channels open
RMP - Answers intracellular space is more negatively charged than extracellular fluid. (ICS high
K+, low Na+. ECF high Na+, low K+)
Local potentials - Answers change in voltage in a specific area of a cell. Two forms are
excitatory and inhibitory
Excitatory presynaptic neurons - Answers Excitatory presynaptic neurons release excitatory
neurons which bind to chemically gated Na+ channels. This causes the release of Na+ into the
post synaptic cell causing depolarization
Inhibitory presynaptic neurons - Answers inhibitory presynaptic neurons release inhibitory
neuron that binds to chemically gated Cl- or K+ channels, this causes K+ or Cl- to be released
into the postsynaptic cell causing it to become hyperpolarized (more negative)
Spatial summation - Answers summed input from multiple pre synaptic neurons
Temporal summation - Answers summed input from the repeated firing of one presynaptic
neuron.
Summation - Answers Summation occurs at the axon hillock as there are a large number of
voltage gated channels and the threshold potential is -60mV, so voltage gated channels can be
opened.
Action potential - Answers When membrane depolarises to -60mV, the Na+ channels open, Na+
rushes in and rapid depolarization phase of action potential occurs. At roughly 30mV the
channels close and the K+ channels open. K+ exits causing rapid repolarization. Slowly the K+
