Ethics and Global Governance
Philosophy
Philosophy studies the fundamental nature of existence, of Man, and of Man’s relationship
with existence. It asks questions like:
● Where am I? → Metaphysics and Anthropology
● How can I discover things? → Epistemology
● What should I do? → Ethics and Politics
Definitions:
● Morality: What is good and bad?
● Ethics: What is the right thing to do? (takes moral beliefs and puts them into systems
or theories)
○ e.g., When morals clash (“If lying is morally wrong, but it could save a life, is it
ethically right to lie?”)
● Politics: The culmination of the previous branches, applying moral principles to
governance and society.
● Metaphysics:
○ Ayn Rand defined it as the study of the fundamental nature of existence, not
wisdom.
○ False to the statement "Metaphysics studies the fundamental nature of
wisdom." (Quiz answer)
Branches of Philosophy that compose a coherent system of thought:
→ Metaphysics, Anthropology, Epistemology, Ethics, and Politics. (Quiz answer)
Philosophy vs. Ideology
● Philosophy: A pragmatic, rational attempt to understand life and the principles
governing existence.
● Ideology: A set of beliefs or doctrines supporting specific social institutions or
organizations.
Hannah Arendt on Philosophy
● Arendt both critiques and values philosophy, especially concerning political life. She
rejected the title of “philosopher” due to philosophy’s detachment from action and
political responsibility.
● Arendt sees the trial and death of Socrates as a turning point. Plato’s grief led to a
hostility toward politics and a preference for abstract, eternal truths over public
debate and opinion.
● Plato wanted philosophy to rule politics via ideal truths, rejecting the unpredictable
and plural nature of political life. This led to a tradition of authoritarian political
philosophy.
● Arendt contrasts Plato with Socrates, who didn’t claim to know absolute truths.
Instead, Socrates practiced dialogue (maieutics), helping others uncover truths in
their doxa (opinions).
, ○ Socrates believed that every opinion has potential truth, making dialogue and
plurality essential. This makes philosophy a political activity rooted in shared
understanding, not domination.
● Arendt suggests friendship, not justice, is the true foundation of political life, because
friendship allows for conversation and mutual respect, while justice imposes abstract
rules.
● Philosophy begins in wonder (thaumadzein), which is speechless and solitary. But
real political life requires speech and shared meaning, making Plato’s silent, wonder-
filled philosopher apolitical.
● True freedom is found in public action and speech (Periclean Athens), not in retreat
to private contemplation. Politics is about appearance, plurality, and unpredictability,
not control.
● In modernity, common sense has collapsed, making both philosophy and politics
uncertain. Arendt sees this as a chance to rethink both by reviving the Socratic model
of thinking together.
● According to Hannah Arendt, ideology is "the vindication of a total explanation."
(Quiz answer). Ideology pretends to fully explain the world, leaving no room for
doubt, complexity, or freedom, and this false certainty is what makes it so dangerous.
e.g., Futurist Cooking
● Avant-garde culinary movement (1930s) by Filippo Tommaso Marinetti and Luigi
Colombo (Fillìa).
● Rejected traditional foods like pasta and favored multisensory dining experiences.
● Early precursor to modern gastronomic trends (e.g., molecular gastronomy).
● Futurist Cooking isn’t a philosophical approach because it focuses on
artistic experimentation and sensory experiences, not on moral, ethical, or
existential questions about food. It rejects tradition for shock value rather
than exploring what is right, just, or meaningful to eat. → False. (Quiz
answer)
Ayn Rand and Philosophy: Who Needs It?
Ayn Rand argues that philosophy is essential for everyone, not just academics. Her book is
a collection of essays demonstrating how abstract ideas influence real-life decisions.
Key Concepts
1. Necessity of Philosophy
● Every individual operates based on a philosophy, whether consciously
chosen or subconsciously absorbed.
● Rand emphasizes the importance of consciously selecting a rational
philosophy to guide one's actions.
2. Branches of Philosophy
● Metaphysics: Study of existence and reality.
● Epistemology: Study of knowledge and how we know what we know.
● Ethics: Study of moral principles guiding human behavior.
● Politics: Study of the principles of a proper social system.
● Aesthetics: Study of art and its role in human life.
3. Rational Egoism
● Rand promotes rational self-interest as a moral principle, asserting that
individuals should act in ways that promote their well-being.
4. Critique of Altruism
, ● She criticizes altruism, viewing it as a moral code that demands self-sacrifice
and undermines individual rights.
5. Influence of Philosophy on Culture
● Philosophical ideas shape cultural norms, laws, and societal structures.
● Rand discusses how collectivist philosophies can lead to negative outcomes
like inflation and censorship.
Ethical Implications
● Individuals must consciously choose their guiding principles to lead meaningful lives.
● Unexamined philosophies can lead to contradictory beliefs and actions.
Plato and Justice
Plato’s Crito is a dialogue written by the ancient Greek philosopher Plato. It presents a
conversation between Socrates and his friend Crito about justice, injustice, and the right
response to injustice after Socrates is imprisoned.
Platonic Justice (Concept):
● Justice maintains social harmony through obedience to laws and proper role
fulfillment.
● Even if one feels personally wronged, personal vengeance would undermine justice.
● Socrates accepts his sentence rather than rebel, respecting the structure that
sustains order.
● In a system governed by the social contract, breaking the rules one has accepted is
unjust.
Characteristics of Platonic Justice:
● Universality (applies in all situations, objective and not relative to culture or opinion)
○ What makes a moral principle universal?
→ Its capacity to be applied across different contexts, cultures, or
situations. (Quiz answer)
● Coherence (eliminating irrational elements)
● Rationality (favoring reason over instinct)
○ Rationality is everything that is not instinctive.
● Distrust of non-rational criteria
● Deontology (using rules to distinguish right from wrong)
Plato’s Contribution to Philosophy:
→ Plato defended the idea of a universal conception of Justice. (Quiz answer)
Would Plato defend an authoritarian government?
→ Yes. (Quiz answer)
Would Plato and Martin Luther King Jr. agree on civil disobedience?
→ No. (Plato emphasizes obedience to the law even if unjust; MLK advocates for
civil disobedience when laws are unjust.) (Quiz answer)
What tool would Plato use to get to the truth?
→ Reason. (Quiz answer)
, Democracy: a government of the ignorant?
● Raises the question: Should rationality alone determine how society is governed?
● Plato is important in this debate because he offers one of the earliest blueprints for
defining rationality and determining what is right in governance.
● His work provides a litmus test for evaluating whether decisions are made based on
reason and truth rather than popular opinion or ignorance.
The Modern Nation of Individuals
The Modern Nation of Individuals:
● Modern societies prioritize individual autonomy and personal responsibility.
● Raises ethical questions about balancing freedom with societal obligations.
The Ancient Motherland:
● Ancient societies emphasized duty to the community over personal freedom.
● Ethical values centered around service to the state.
Benjamin Constant's The Liberty of Ancients Compared with that of Moderns (1819):
● Ancient liberty: Collective political participation and sovereignty.
● Modern liberty: Individual freedoms and private autonomy.
● Quiz Summary:
→ Ancient liberty focused on political participation and collective
sovereignty, while modern liberty emphasizes individual freedoms and
personal autonomy. (Quiz answer).
● Constant distinguishes between ancient liberty (collective political power) and
modern liberty (individual rights and private independence).
○ Ancient liberty: Active participation in political decision-making (voting,
judging, deliberating laws).
○ Modern liberty: Protection of personal freedoms (expression, religion,
property, movement).
● Ancient Liberty
○ Citizens participated directly in state affairs but had limited personal freedom.
○ Individual behavior, beliefs, and even private life were regulated by the state
(e.g., Sparta, Rome).
○ Freedom meant submission to the collective will for the sake of sovereignty.
● Modern Liberty
○ Emphasis on civil rights, private life, and legal protections from arbitrary
power.
○ People value commerce, comfort, personal pursuits, and private happiness
over constant political engagement.
○ Sovereignty is exercised rarely, indirectly (e.g., via elections), and often
symbolically.
● Historical Evolution
○ Ancient republics were small, constantly at war, and depended on slavery.
○ Modern societies are larger, interconnected through commerce, and more
peaceful.
○ Commerce replaced war as the driver of prosperity and promoted individual
autonomy.
● Practical Implications
○ Modern citizens have less political influence but more private freedom.
Philosophy
Philosophy studies the fundamental nature of existence, of Man, and of Man’s relationship
with existence. It asks questions like:
● Where am I? → Metaphysics and Anthropology
● How can I discover things? → Epistemology
● What should I do? → Ethics and Politics
Definitions:
● Morality: What is good and bad?
● Ethics: What is the right thing to do? (takes moral beliefs and puts them into systems
or theories)
○ e.g., When morals clash (“If lying is morally wrong, but it could save a life, is it
ethically right to lie?”)
● Politics: The culmination of the previous branches, applying moral principles to
governance and society.
● Metaphysics:
○ Ayn Rand defined it as the study of the fundamental nature of existence, not
wisdom.
○ False to the statement "Metaphysics studies the fundamental nature of
wisdom." (Quiz answer)
Branches of Philosophy that compose a coherent system of thought:
→ Metaphysics, Anthropology, Epistemology, Ethics, and Politics. (Quiz answer)
Philosophy vs. Ideology
● Philosophy: A pragmatic, rational attempt to understand life and the principles
governing existence.
● Ideology: A set of beliefs or doctrines supporting specific social institutions or
organizations.
Hannah Arendt on Philosophy
● Arendt both critiques and values philosophy, especially concerning political life. She
rejected the title of “philosopher” due to philosophy’s detachment from action and
political responsibility.
● Arendt sees the trial and death of Socrates as a turning point. Plato’s grief led to a
hostility toward politics and a preference for abstract, eternal truths over public
debate and opinion.
● Plato wanted philosophy to rule politics via ideal truths, rejecting the unpredictable
and plural nature of political life. This led to a tradition of authoritarian political
philosophy.
● Arendt contrasts Plato with Socrates, who didn’t claim to know absolute truths.
Instead, Socrates practiced dialogue (maieutics), helping others uncover truths in
their doxa (opinions).
, ○ Socrates believed that every opinion has potential truth, making dialogue and
plurality essential. This makes philosophy a political activity rooted in shared
understanding, not domination.
● Arendt suggests friendship, not justice, is the true foundation of political life, because
friendship allows for conversation and mutual respect, while justice imposes abstract
rules.
● Philosophy begins in wonder (thaumadzein), which is speechless and solitary. But
real political life requires speech and shared meaning, making Plato’s silent, wonder-
filled philosopher apolitical.
● True freedom is found in public action and speech (Periclean Athens), not in retreat
to private contemplation. Politics is about appearance, plurality, and unpredictability,
not control.
● In modernity, common sense has collapsed, making both philosophy and politics
uncertain. Arendt sees this as a chance to rethink both by reviving the Socratic model
of thinking together.
● According to Hannah Arendt, ideology is "the vindication of a total explanation."
(Quiz answer). Ideology pretends to fully explain the world, leaving no room for
doubt, complexity, or freedom, and this false certainty is what makes it so dangerous.
e.g., Futurist Cooking
● Avant-garde culinary movement (1930s) by Filippo Tommaso Marinetti and Luigi
Colombo (Fillìa).
● Rejected traditional foods like pasta and favored multisensory dining experiences.
● Early precursor to modern gastronomic trends (e.g., molecular gastronomy).
● Futurist Cooking isn’t a philosophical approach because it focuses on
artistic experimentation and sensory experiences, not on moral, ethical, or
existential questions about food. It rejects tradition for shock value rather
than exploring what is right, just, or meaningful to eat. → False. (Quiz
answer)
Ayn Rand and Philosophy: Who Needs It?
Ayn Rand argues that philosophy is essential for everyone, not just academics. Her book is
a collection of essays demonstrating how abstract ideas influence real-life decisions.
Key Concepts
1. Necessity of Philosophy
● Every individual operates based on a philosophy, whether consciously
chosen or subconsciously absorbed.
● Rand emphasizes the importance of consciously selecting a rational
philosophy to guide one's actions.
2. Branches of Philosophy
● Metaphysics: Study of existence and reality.
● Epistemology: Study of knowledge and how we know what we know.
● Ethics: Study of moral principles guiding human behavior.
● Politics: Study of the principles of a proper social system.
● Aesthetics: Study of art and its role in human life.
3. Rational Egoism
● Rand promotes rational self-interest as a moral principle, asserting that
individuals should act in ways that promote their well-being.
4. Critique of Altruism
, ● She criticizes altruism, viewing it as a moral code that demands self-sacrifice
and undermines individual rights.
5. Influence of Philosophy on Culture
● Philosophical ideas shape cultural norms, laws, and societal structures.
● Rand discusses how collectivist philosophies can lead to negative outcomes
like inflation and censorship.
Ethical Implications
● Individuals must consciously choose their guiding principles to lead meaningful lives.
● Unexamined philosophies can lead to contradictory beliefs and actions.
Plato and Justice
Plato’s Crito is a dialogue written by the ancient Greek philosopher Plato. It presents a
conversation between Socrates and his friend Crito about justice, injustice, and the right
response to injustice after Socrates is imprisoned.
Platonic Justice (Concept):
● Justice maintains social harmony through obedience to laws and proper role
fulfillment.
● Even if one feels personally wronged, personal vengeance would undermine justice.
● Socrates accepts his sentence rather than rebel, respecting the structure that
sustains order.
● In a system governed by the social contract, breaking the rules one has accepted is
unjust.
Characteristics of Platonic Justice:
● Universality (applies in all situations, objective and not relative to culture or opinion)
○ What makes a moral principle universal?
→ Its capacity to be applied across different contexts, cultures, or
situations. (Quiz answer)
● Coherence (eliminating irrational elements)
● Rationality (favoring reason over instinct)
○ Rationality is everything that is not instinctive.
● Distrust of non-rational criteria
● Deontology (using rules to distinguish right from wrong)
Plato’s Contribution to Philosophy:
→ Plato defended the idea of a universal conception of Justice. (Quiz answer)
Would Plato defend an authoritarian government?
→ Yes. (Quiz answer)
Would Plato and Martin Luther King Jr. agree on civil disobedience?
→ No. (Plato emphasizes obedience to the law even if unjust; MLK advocates for
civil disobedience when laws are unjust.) (Quiz answer)
What tool would Plato use to get to the truth?
→ Reason. (Quiz answer)
, Democracy: a government of the ignorant?
● Raises the question: Should rationality alone determine how society is governed?
● Plato is important in this debate because he offers one of the earliest blueprints for
defining rationality and determining what is right in governance.
● His work provides a litmus test for evaluating whether decisions are made based on
reason and truth rather than popular opinion or ignorance.
The Modern Nation of Individuals
The Modern Nation of Individuals:
● Modern societies prioritize individual autonomy and personal responsibility.
● Raises ethical questions about balancing freedom with societal obligations.
The Ancient Motherland:
● Ancient societies emphasized duty to the community over personal freedom.
● Ethical values centered around service to the state.
Benjamin Constant's The Liberty of Ancients Compared with that of Moderns (1819):
● Ancient liberty: Collective political participation and sovereignty.
● Modern liberty: Individual freedoms and private autonomy.
● Quiz Summary:
→ Ancient liberty focused on political participation and collective
sovereignty, while modern liberty emphasizes individual freedoms and
personal autonomy. (Quiz answer).
● Constant distinguishes between ancient liberty (collective political power) and
modern liberty (individual rights and private independence).
○ Ancient liberty: Active participation in political decision-making (voting,
judging, deliberating laws).
○ Modern liberty: Protection of personal freedoms (expression, religion,
property, movement).
● Ancient Liberty
○ Citizens participated directly in state affairs but had limited personal freedom.
○ Individual behavior, beliefs, and even private life were regulated by the state
(e.g., Sparta, Rome).
○ Freedom meant submission to the collective will for the sake of sovereignty.
● Modern Liberty
○ Emphasis on civil rights, private life, and legal protections from arbitrary
power.
○ People value commerce, comfort, personal pursuits, and private happiness
over constant political engagement.
○ Sovereignty is exercised rarely, indirectly (e.g., via elections), and often
symbolically.
● Historical Evolution
○ Ancient republics were small, constantly at war, and depended on slavery.
○ Modern societies are larger, interconnected through commerce, and more
peaceful.
○ Commerce replaced war as the driver of prosperity and promoted individual
autonomy.
● Practical Implications
○ Modern citizens have less political influence but more private freedom.
