Inhoudsopgave
CHAPTER 1 – BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY 4
THREE FUNDAMENTAL IDEAS FOR PSYCHOLOGY: A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 4
THE SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY 6
CHAPTER 2 – METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY 9
LESSONS FROM CLEVER HANS 9
TYPES OF RESEARCH STRATEGIES 10
STATISTICAL METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY 11
MINIMIZING BIAS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 13
ETHICAL ISSUES IN PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH 15
CHAPTER 3 – GENETICS AND EVOLUTIONARY FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR 15
REVIEW OF BASIC GENETIC MECHANISMS 15
INHERITANCE OF BEHAVIORAL TRAITS 17
EVOLUTION BY NATURAL SELECTION 18
NATURAL SELECTION AS A FOUNDATION FOR UNDERSTANDING SPECIES-TYPICAL BEHAVIORS 19
EVOLUTIONARY ANALYSES OF MATING, AGGRESSION, AND HELPING 19
CHAPTER 4 – THE NEURAL CONTROL OF BEHAVIOR 21
NEURONS: THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF THE BRAIN 21
METHODS OF MAPPING THE BRAIN’S BEHAVIORAL FUNCTIONS 25
FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 26
HOW HORMONES INTERACT WITH THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 30
HEMISPHERIC DIFFERENCES IN THE CEREBRAL CORTEX 30
CHANGES IN THE BRAIN OVER TIME 32
CHAPTER 5 – MECHANISMS OF MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 32
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MOTIVATION 32
REWARD MECHANISMS OF THE BRAIN 33
HUNGER: AN EXAMPLE OF A REGULATORY DRIVE 34
THE SLEEP DRIVE 35
FOUNDATIONS FOR UNDERSTANDING EMOTIONS 37
CHAPTER 6 – SMELL, TASTE, PAIN, HEARING AND PSYCHOPHYSICS 38
OVERVIEW OF SENSORY PROCESSES 39
PSYCHOPHYSICS 39
SMELL 40
TASTE 41
PAIN 42
HEARING 43
CHAPTER 7 – THE PSYCHOLOGY OF VISION 46
HOW THE EYE WORKS 46
SEEING COLORS 48
DEVELOPMENT AND PLASTICITY OF THE VISUAL SYSTEM 49
,SEEING FORMS, PATTERNS, OBJECTS, AND FACES 49
SEEING IN THREE DIMENSIONS 52
MULTISENSORY PERCEPTION: COMBINING SENSES 54
CHAPTER 8 – BASIC PROCESSES OF LEARNING 54
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING 54
OPERANT CONDITIONING 57
BEYOND CLASSICAL AND OPERANT THEORIES OF LEARNING: PLAY, EXPLORATION, AND OBSERVATION 61
SPECIALIZED LEARNING ABILITIES: FILLING THE BLANKS IN SPECIES-TYPICAL BEHAVIOR PATTERNS 63
CHAPTER 9 – MEMORY, ATTENTION, AND CONSCIOUSNESS 65
OVERVIEW: AN INFORMATION-PROCESSING MODEL OF THE MIND 65
ATTENTION: THE PORTAL TO CONSCIOUSNESS 67
WORKING MEMORY: THE ACTIVE, CONSCIOUS MIND 70
EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS 71
MEMORY AS THE REPRESENTATION OF KNOWLEDGE 73
MEMORY AS THE PROCESS OF REMEMBERING 75
RETRIEVING INFORMATION FROM LONG-TERM MEMORY 78
CHAPTER 10 – SOLVING PROBLEMS: REASONING AND INTELLIGENCE 81
HOW PEOPLE REASON I: ANALOGIES AND INDUCTION 81
HOW PEOPLE REASON II: DEDUCTION AND INSIGHT 83
CROSS-CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN PERCEPTION AND REASONING 84
THE PRACTICE AND THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE TESTING 85
GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO INTELLIGENCE 88
CHAPTER 11 – THE DEVELOPMENT OF BODY, THOUGHT, AND LANGUAGE 90
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 90
HOW INFANTS LEARN ABOUT THE ENVIRONMENT 92
THREE THEORIES OF CHILDREN’S MENTAL DEVELOPMENT 95
CHILDREN’S UNDERSTANDING OF MINDS 99
THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE AND CHILDREN’S EARLY LINGUISTIC ABILITIES 99
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL SUPPORTS FOR LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 102
CHAPTER 12 - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 104
INFANCY: USING CAREGIVERS AS A BASE FOR GROWTH 104
HELPING, COMFORTING, AND LEARNING FROM OTHERS IN CHILDHOOD 106
PARENTING STYLES 108
THE ROLES OF PLAY AND GENDER IN DEVELOPMENT 109
ADOLESCENCE: BREAKING OUT OF THE COCOON 111
ADULTHOOD: FINDING SATISFACTION IN LOVE AND WORK 115
CHAPTER 13 – SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 118
FORMING IMPRESSIONS OF OTHER PEOPLE 118
PERCEIVING AND EVALUATING THE SELF 119
PERCEIVING OURSELVES AND OTHERS AS MEMBERS OF GROUPS 122
EFFECTS OF BEING OBSERVED AND EVALUATED 123
EFFECTS OF OTHERS’ EXAMPLES, OPINIONS, AND REQUESTS 125
TO COOPERATE OR NOT: PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND THE DILEMMA OF SOCIAL LIFE 128
2
,CHAPTER 14 – PERSONALITY 130
PERSONALITY AS BEHAVIORAL DISPOSITIONS OR TRAITS 130
PERSONALITY AS ADAPTATION TO LIFE CONDITIONS 133
PERSONALITY AS MENTAL PROCESSES I: PSYCHODYNAMIC AND HUMANISTIC VIEWS 137
PERSONALITY AS MENTAL PROCESSES II: SOCIAL-COGNITIVE VIEWS 141
CHAPTER 15 – PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 145
PROBLEMS IN IDENTIFYING PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 145
CAUSES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 148
ANXIETY DISORDERS 150
OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER 152
TRAUMATIC AND STRESS-RELATED DISORDERS: POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER 153
MOOD DISORDERS 154
SCHIZOPHRENIA 158
PERSONALITY DISORDERS 161
CHAPTER 16 – TREATMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 164
CARE AS SOCIAL ISSUE 164
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS 165
PSYCHOTHERAPY I: PSYCHODYNAMIC AND HUMANISTIC THERAPIES 170
PSYCHOTHERAPY II: BEHAVIORAL AND COGNITIVE THERAPIES 173
EVALUATING PSYCHOTHERAPIES 176
3
, Psychology – Peter Grey, David Bjorklund
PSYCHOLOGIE
GEESTESWETENSCHAPPEN NATUURWETENSCHAPPEN (KLASSIEKE GENEESKUNDE)
- BETEKENIS - ALLES IS TE HERLEIDEN TOT EEN OORZAAK
- CULTUUR - DIE OORZAAK KENT ZIJN BASIS IN DE MATERIE
- VRIJE WIL EN ZORGT ERVOOR DAT ALLES EEN
NATUURLIJK VERLOOP HEEFT
Chapter 1 – Background to the Study of Psychology
Three fundamental Ideas for Psychology: A Historical Overview
Principal questions of psychology:
- Why do people feel, think and behave the way they do?
- Are we the result of our genes, our experiences, or both?
- How important are our goals versus our past in determining what we do?
- Is there a separation between mind and body?
Psychology is the science of behavior and the mind.
- Behavior: observable actions of a person or animal.
- Mind: An individual’s sensations, perceptions, memories, thoughts, dreams, motives,
emotions and other subjective experiences. It also refers to all of the unconscious
knowledge and operating rules that are stored in the brain and that provide the
foundation for organizing behavior and conscious experience.
- Science: All attempts to answer questions through the systematic collections and
logical analysis of objectively observable data. In psychology, that data is based on
observations of behavior; behavior is directly observable and the mind is not.
In 1879 Wilhelm Wundt opened the first university-based psychology laboratory in Leipzig.
Three fundamental ideas for psychology were conceived of and debated before psychology
was recognized as a scientific discipline.
- Behavior and mental experiences have physical causes that can be studied
scientifically.
- The way people behave, think and feel is modified over time by their experiences in
their environment.
- The body’s machinery, which produces behavior and mental experiences, is a
product of evolution by natural selection.
Until the 18th Century, Western philosophy was tightly bound to and constrained by religion.
It was dangerous to publically challenge their idea of dualism:
- The body is part of the natural world and can be studied scientifically.
- The soul is a supernatural entity that operates to its own free will, and therefore
cannot be studied scientifically.
4
CHAPTER 1 – BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY 4
THREE FUNDAMENTAL IDEAS FOR PSYCHOLOGY: A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 4
THE SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY 6
CHAPTER 2 – METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY 9
LESSONS FROM CLEVER HANS 9
TYPES OF RESEARCH STRATEGIES 10
STATISTICAL METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY 11
MINIMIZING BIAS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 13
ETHICAL ISSUES IN PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH 15
CHAPTER 3 – GENETICS AND EVOLUTIONARY FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR 15
REVIEW OF BASIC GENETIC MECHANISMS 15
INHERITANCE OF BEHAVIORAL TRAITS 17
EVOLUTION BY NATURAL SELECTION 18
NATURAL SELECTION AS A FOUNDATION FOR UNDERSTANDING SPECIES-TYPICAL BEHAVIORS 19
EVOLUTIONARY ANALYSES OF MATING, AGGRESSION, AND HELPING 19
CHAPTER 4 – THE NEURAL CONTROL OF BEHAVIOR 21
NEURONS: THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF THE BRAIN 21
METHODS OF MAPPING THE BRAIN’S BEHAVIORAL FUNCTIONS 25
FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 26
HOW HORMONES INTERACT WITH THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 30
HEMISPHERIC DIFFERENCES IN THE CEREBRAL CORTEX 30
CHANGES IN THE BRAIN OVER TIME 32
CHAPTER 5 – MECHANISMS OF MOTIVATION AND EMOTION 32
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MOTIVATION 32
REWARD MECHANISMS OF THE BRAIN 33
HUNGER: AN EXAMPLE OF A REGULATORY DRIVE 34
THE SLEEP DRIVE 35
FOUNDATIONS FOR UNDERSTANDING EMOTIONS 37
CHAPTER 6 – SMELL, TASTE, PAIN, HEARING AND PSYCHOPHYSICS 38
OVERVIEW OF SENSORY PROCESSES 39
PSYCHOPHYSICS 39
SMELL 40
TASTE 41
PAIN 42
HEARING 43
CHAPTER 7 – THE PSYCHOLOGY OF VISION 46
HOW THE EYE WORKS 46
SEEING COLORS 48
DEVELOPMENT AND PLASTICITY OF THE VISUAL SYSTEM 49
,SEEING FORMS, PATTERNS, OBJECTS, AND FACES 49
SEEING IN THREE DIMENSIONS 52
MULTISENSORY PERCEPTION: COMBINING SENSES 54
CHAPTER 8 – BASIC PROCESSES OF LEARNING 54
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING 54
OPERANT CONDITIONING 57
BEYOND CLASSICAL AND OPERANT THEORIES OF LEARNING: PLAY, EXPLORATION, AND OBSERVATION 61
SPECIALIZED LEARNING ABILITIES: FILLING THE BLANKS IN SPECIES-TYPICAL BEHAVIOR PATTERNS 63
CHAPTER 9 – MEMORY, ATTENTION, AND CONSCIOUSNESS 65
OVERVIEW: AN INFORMATION-PROCESSING MODEL OF THE MIND 65
ATTENTION: THE PORTAL TO CONSCIOUSNESS 67
WORKING MEMORY: THE ACTIVE, CONSCIOUS MIND 70
EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS 71
MEMORY AS THE REPRESENTATION OF KNOWLEDGE 73
MEMORY AS THE PROCESS OF REMEMBERING 75
RETRIEVING INFORMATION FROM LONG-TERM MEMORY 78
CHAPTER 10 – SOLVING PROBLEMS: REASONING AND INTELLIGENCE 81
HOW PEOPLE REASON I: ANALOGIES AND INDUCTION 81
HOW PEOPLE REASON II: DEDUCTION AND INSIGHT 83
CROSS-CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN PERCEPTION AND REASONING 84
THE PRACTICE AND THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE TESTING 85
GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTRIBUTIONS TO INTELLIGENCE 88
CHAPTER 11 – THE DEVELOPMENT OF BODY, THOUGHT, AND LANGUAGE 90
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 90
HOW INFANTS LEARN ABOUT THE ENVIRONMENT 92
THREE THEORIES OF CHILDREN’S MENTAL DEVELOPMENT 95
CHILDREN’S UNDERSTANDING OF MINDS 99
THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE AND CHILDREN’S EARLY LINGUISTIC ABILITIES 99
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL SUPPORTS FOR LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 102
CHAPTER 12 - SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 104
INFANCY: USING CAREGIVERS AS A BASE FOR GROWTH 104
HELPING, COMFORTING, AND LEARNING FROM OTHERS IN CHILDHOOD 106
PARENTING STYLES 108
THE ROLES OF PLAY AND GENDER IN DEVELOPMENT 109
ADOLESCENCE: BREAKING OUT OF THE COCOON 111
ADULTHOOD: FINDING SATISFACTION IN LOVE AND WORK 115
CHAPTER 13 – SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 118
FORMING IMPRESSIONS OF OTHER PEOPLE 118
PERCEIVING AND EVALUATING THE SELF 119
PERCEIVING OURSELVES AND OTHERS AS MEMBERS OF GROUPS 122
EFFECTS OF BEING OBSERVED AND EVALUATED 123
EFFECTS OF OTHERS’ EXAMPLES, OPINIONS, AND REQUESTS 125
TO COOPERATE OR NOT: PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND THE DILEMMA OF SOCIAL LIFE 128
2
,CHAPTER 14 – PERSONALITY 130
PERSONALITY AS BEHAVIORAL DISPOSITIONS OR TRAITS 130
PERSONALITY AS ADAPTATION TO LIFE CONDITIONS 133
PERSONALITY AS MENTAL PROCESSES I: PSYCHODYNAMIC AND HUMANISTIC VIEWS 137
PERSONALITY AS MENTAL PROCESSES II: SOCIAL-COGNITIVE VIEWS 141
CHAPTER 15 – PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 145
PROBLEMS IN IDENTIFYING PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 145
CAUSES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 148
ANXIETY DISORDERS 150
OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER 152
TRAUMATIC AND STRESS-RELATED DISORDERS: POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER 153
MOOD DISORDERS 154
SCHIZOPHRENIA 158
PERSONALITY DISORDERS 161
CHAPTER 16 – TREATMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 164
CARE AS SOCIAL ISSUE 164
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS 165
PSYCHOTHERAPY I: PSYCHODYNAMIC AND HUMANISTIC THERAPIES 170
PSYCHOTHERAPY II: BEHAVIORAL AND COGNITIVE THERAPIES 173
EVALUATING PSYCHOTHERAPIES 176
3
, Psychology – Peter Grey, David Bjorklund
PSYCHOLOGIE
GEESTESWETENSCHAPPEN NATUURWETENSCHAPPEN (KLASSIEKE GENEESKUNDE)
- BETEKENIS - ALLES IS TE HERLEIDEN TOT EEN OORZAAK
- CULTUUR - DIE OORZAAK KENT ZIJN BASIS IN DE MATERIE
- VRIJE WIL EN ZORGT ERVOOR DAT ALLES EEN
NATUURLIJK VERLOOP HEEFT
Chapter 1 – Background to the Study of Psychology
Three fundamental Ideas for Psychology: A Historical Overview
Principal questions of psychology:
- Why do people feel, think and behave the way they do?
- Are we the result of our genes, our experiences, or both?
- How important are our goals versus our past in determining what we do?
- Is there a separation between mind and body?
Psychology is the science of behavior and the mind.
- Behavior: observable actions of a person or animal.
- Mind: An individual’s sensations, perceptions, memories, thoughts, dreams, motives,
emotions and other subjective experiences. It also refers to all of the unconscious
knowledge and operating rules that are stored in the brain and that provide the
foundation for organizing behavior and conscious experience.
- Science: All attempts to answer questions through the systematic collections and
logical analysis of objectively observable data. In psychology, that data is based on
observations of behavior; behavior is directly observable and the mind is not.
In 1879 Wilhelm Wundt opened the first university-based psychology laboratory in Leipzig.
Three fundamental ideas for psychology were conceived of and debated before psychology
was recognized as a scientific discipline.
- Behavior and mental experiences have physical causes that can be studied
scientifically.
- The way people behave, think and feel is modified over time by their experiences in
their environment.
- The body’s machinery, which produces behavior and mental experiences, is a
product of evolution by natural selection.
Until the 18th Century, Western philosophy was tightly bound to and constrained by religion.
It was dangerous to publically challenge their idea of dualism:
- The body is part of the natural world and can be studied scientifically.
- The soul is a supernatural entity that operates to its own free will, and therefore
cannot be studied scientifically.
4
