Memory
Coding:
Refers to how information is stored in the memory. In the short-term memory,
information is stored in an acoustic from (sound), while in long-term memory
(LTM), it is stored semantically (meaning). Baddeley found that people made
more mistakes when recalling words that sounded similar immediately after
learning but made more mistakes with words that had similar meanings after 20
minutes.
Capacity:
Refers to how much information can be held in memory at one time. The
capacity of STM is around 7+/- 2 (Miller), while LTM has an unlimited capacity.
Miller suggested that we are naturally good at a process called chunking
Duration:
Refers to how long information stays in memory. STM lasts for around 18-30
seconds, shown by Peterson. The duration of LTM is unlimited, as shown by
Bahrick, who found that people’s ability to recognise classmate’s photos
decreased between 15 – 40 years after graduation.
Describe and evaluate the multi-store model of memory (16 marks)
AO1 - The Multi-Store Model, proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, provides a
straightforward explanation of how information moves through different memory
stores: sensory register, short-term memory and long-term memory. Each store
has distinct characteristics, with the sensory register having a vast capacity but
very short duration and STM being limited in capacity and duration. For instance,
STM can hold around 7+/-2 items. The model believes that the information must
undergo rehearsal to move from STM to LTM.
AO3 – Useful to some extent: It was the first model to suggest that memory
consists of three distinct stores. This model provided a useful framework for
understanding the structure of memory and became impactful for future
research. By proposing that these three stores have different characteristics in
terms of duration, capacity and coding, the model encourage further
investigations into the nature of memory. This theoretical framework has been
foundational in shaping later models of memory, particularly those exploring the
functions.
AO3 – Simplicity and unitary : One of the main criticisms of the MSM is its
simplicity. While it effectively provides a clear framework for how information
flows between sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term
memory (LTM), it oversimplifies the complexities of memory. The MSM assumes
that each of these memory stores operates as a single, unitary system. However,
research has shown that memory is much more complex. This undermines the
MSM's model of STM as a singular entity, highlighting its limitation in explaining
the full diversity of memory processes. The study of KF, who suffered brain
damage, demonstrated that his STM was impaired, but his LTM remained largely
intact. This challenges the idea of a simple, one-way transfer between stores and
suggests there are multiple components.
, Memory
AO3 – Empirical evidence: Empirical evidence has supported many of the
characteristics proposed. For example, Baddeley’s research showed that STM
and LTM use different types of coding, with STM relying on acoustic and LTM
using semantic coding. Additionally, Jacobs and Sperling demonstrated that STM
has a limited capacity, whereas LMT has a much larger capacity. This all allows
for further proof that the MMS has empirical basis.
Outline and evaluate research into the effects of misleading information
on eyewitness testimony (16 marks)
AO1 – Research has demonstrated that misleading information can significantly
affect the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.
AO1 - Loftus and Palmer explored how leading questions can influence
eyewitness memory. Participants who were asked how fast a car was going when
it “smashed” into another car estimated a higher speed than those who were
asked using a more neutral verb, such as “hit”. This suggests that the wording of
questions can alter the recall of specific details, such as speed.
AO1 – Loftus and Zanni extended this idea by showing how subtle changes in
phrasing could distort memory. For example, asking participants “did you see
the broken headlight”, would lead them to falsely remember seeing a broken
headlight.
AO1 – Gabbert showed that post-event discussion between witnesses can also
lead to memory contamination, where co-witnesses combine incorrect details
from one another’s accounts, as well as memory conformity, where witnesses
alter their memories. These findings highlight the significant impact that
misleading information can have on EWT accuracy.
AO3 – Real-life application: One strength of the research into misleading
information and eyewitness testimony (EWT) is its real-life application,
particularly in the development of the cognitive interview. The cognitive
interview is an evidence-based technique designed to help police officers gather
more accurate information from eyewitnesses by avoiding leading questions and
using strategies that reduce the impact of memory distortions. The research
findings on how misleading questions can alter memories, such as Loftus and
Palmer’s work on leading questions, directly influenced the creation of these
techniques. As such, the practical implications of this research are crucial in
improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony, potentially reducing the
likelihood of wrongful convictions. This shows that the research has had a
positive effect on real-world practices within law enforcement. However, while
the cognitive interview has proven beneficial, its effectiveness can vary
depending on how well it is implemented, highlighting that real-world application
may still face challenges.
AO3 – Ecological validity: A significant limitation of many studies into the
effects of misleading information on eyewitness testimony is the use of artificial
materials, such as films or staged events. For example, in Loftus and Palmer’s
study, participants watched a film clip of a car crash, and their memories were
subsequently influenced by the wording of a question. These materials are often
less anxiety-inducing and emotionally charged than real-life experiences,
Coding:
Refers to how information is stored in the memory. In the short-term memory,
information is stored in an acoustic from (sound), while in long-term memory
(LTM), it is stored semantically (meaning). Baddeley found that people made
more mistakes when recalling words that sounded similar immediately after
learning but made more mistakes with words that had similar meanings after 20
minutes.
Capacity:
Refers to how much information can be held in memory at one time. The
capacity of STM is around 7+/- 2 (Miller), while LTM has an unlimited capacity.
Miller suggested that we are naturally good at a process called chunking
Duration:
Refers to how long information stays in memory. STM lasts for around 18-30
seconds, shown by Peterson. The duration of LTM is unlimited, as shown by
Bahrick, who found that people’s ability to recognise classmate’s photos
decreased between 15 – 40 years after graduation.
Describe and evaluate the multi-store model of memory (16 marks)
AO1 - The Multi-Store Model, proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, provides a
straightforward explanation of how information moves through different memory
stores: sensory register, short-term memory and long-term memory. Each store
has distinct characteristics, with the sensory register having a vast capacity but
very short duration and STM being limited in capacity and duration. For instance,
STM can hold around 7+/-2 items. The model believes that the information must
undergo rehearsal to move from STM to LTM.
AO3 – Useful to some extent: It was the first model to suggest that memory
consists of three distinct stores. This model provided a useful framework for
understanding the structure of memory and became impactful for future
research. By proposing that these three stores have different characteristics in
terms of duration, capacity and coding, the model encourage further
investigations into the nature of memory. This theoretical framework has been
foundational in shaping later models of memory, particularly those exploring the
functions.
AO3 – Simplicity and unitary : One of the main criticisms of the MSM is its
simplicity. While it effectively provides a clear framework for how information
flows between sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term
memory (LTM), it oversimplifies the complexities of memory. The MSM assumes
that each of these memory stores operates as a single, unitary system. However,
research has shown that memory is much more complex. This undermines the
MSM's model of STM as a singular entity, highlighting its limitation in explaining
the full diversity of memory processes. The study of KF, who suffered brain
damage, demonstrated that his STM was impaired, but his LTM remained largely
intact. This challenges the idea of a simple, one-way transfer between stores and
suggests there are multiple components.
, Memory
AO3 – Empirical evidence: Empirical evidence has supported many of the
characteristics proposed. For example, Baddeley’s research showed that STM
and LTM use different types of coding, with STM relying on acoustic and LTM
using semantic coding. Additionally, Jacobs and Sperling demonstrated that STM
has a limited capacity, whereas LMT has a much larger capacity. This all allows
for further proof that the MMS has empirical basis.
Outline and evaluate research into the effects of misleading information
on eyewitness testimony (16 marks)
AO1 – Research has demonstrated that misleading information can significantly
affect the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.
AO1 - Loftus and Palmer explored how leading questions can influence
eyewitness memory. Participants who were asked how fast a car was going when
it “smashed” into another car estimated a higher speed than those who were
asked using a more neutral verb, such as “hit”. This suggests that the wording of
questions can alter the recall of specific details, such as speed.
AO1 – Loftus and Zanni extended this idea by showing how subtle changes in
phrasing could distort memory. For example, asking participants “did you see
the broken headlight”, would lead them to falsely remember seeing a broken
headlight.
AO1 – Gabbert showed that post-event discussion between witnesses can also
lead to memory contamination, where co-witnesses combine incorrect details
from one another’s accounts, as well as memory conformity, where witnesses
alter their memories. These findings highlight the significant impact that
misleading information can have on EWT accuracy.
AO3 – Real-life application: One strength of the research into misleading
information and eyewitness testimony (EWT) is its real-life application,
particularly in the development of the cognitive interview. The cognitive
interview is an evidence-based technique designed to help police officers gather
more accurate information from eyewitnesses by avoiding leading questions and
using strategies that reduce the impact of memory distortions. The research
findings on how misleading questions can alter memories, such as Loftus and
Palmer’s work on leading questions, directly influenced the creation of these
techniques. As such, the practical implications of this research are crucial in
improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony, potentially reducing the
likelihood of wrongful convictions. This shows that the research has had a
positive effect on real-world practices within law enforcement. However, while
the cognitive interview has proven beneficial, its effectiveness can vary
depending on how well it is implemented, highlighting that real-world application
may still face challenges.
AO3 – Ecological validity: A significant limitation of many studies into the
effects of misleading information on eyewitness testimony is the use of artificial
materials, such as films or staged events. For example, in Loftus and Palmer’s
study, participants watched a film clip of a car crash, and their memories were
subsequently influenced by the wording of a question. These materials are often
less anxiety-inducing and emotionally charged than real-life experiences,
