NSG 533 EXAM 1:
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY NSG 533,
2025/2026 WITH
CORRECT/ACCURATE ANSWERS
What are the five essential components of pathophysiology? -
CORRECT ANSWERS- 1. Etiology (Causative mechanisms)
2. Epidemiology (risk factors and distribution in populations)
3. Pathogenesis (disease mechanism)
4. clinical manifestations (signs, symptoms and diagnostic
criteria)
5. Outcomes (cure, remission, chronicity, or death)
Describe the pathophysiological basis of reperfusion injury -
CORRECT ANSWERS- When cells are deprived of oxygen, they
use their ATP stores and accumulate purine catabolites
hypoxanthine and xanthine. In reperfusion injury these are
metabolized into free radicals that cause membrane damage and
calcium overload. Cardia ischemia and reperfusion causes
excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS), pH alterations, osmotic
changes, gap junction changes, inflammatory signaling, and
calcium overload of the mitochondria. These changes also lead to
the opening of a large conductance pore on the mitochondrial
membrane called the mitochondrial permeability transition pore
with massive escape of ATP and solutes leading to cell death
activation (apoptosis).
,Discuss systematic manifestations of cellular injury - CORRECT
ANSWERS- 1. Fever
2. Increased heart rate
3. increase in number of leukocytes (leukocytosis)
4. presence of cellular enzymes in extracellular fluid
5. Lactate dehydrogenase
6. Creatine Kinase (CK)
7. Aspartate aminotransferase (AST)
8. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT)
9. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP)
10. Amylase
11. Aldolase
12. Troponins
Explain the pathogenesis and pathophysiologic effect(s) of
bilirubin and fat accumulation in the cell - CORRECT ANSWERS-
Two examples of endogenous accumulations are lipids (fat) and
bilirubin.
-Fatty changes occur most often in liver cells but can also be a
problem in myocardial cells. The liver handles fats and
synthesizes complex fats and lipoproteins all the time. Slow
accumulation of fat within hepatic or myocardial cells usually
does not impair the function of those cells until the problem is
,extreme. However, fatty change can occur on an acute basis and
can lead to acute heart or liver failure.
-Bilirubin is essentially a pigment that is released when RBCs
break down or are destroyed. This bilirubin is released or diffuses
into the blood where it is called unconjugated (indirect) bilirubin.
Unconjugated bilirubin is fat-soluble and cannot be eliminated
through the kidney (urine). The unconjugated bilirubin is then
taken up by the liver cells, bound to a substance called glucuronic
acid, and becomes bilirubin glucuronide or conjugated (direct)
bilirubin. Conjugate bilirubin is water soluble and can be
eliminated through the kidney.
How do you calculate incidence and prevalence of a disease? -
CORRECT ANSWERS- The incidence of a disease, as it is usually
defined, is the number of new cases occurring in a given
population within a given time period-usually 1 year. For example,
the incidence of Down Syndrome in the US is 1 in 690 births
(1/690 x 100 = 0.14%)
On the other hand, the prevalence of a disease involves the
number of cases existing (both old and new) in a given time
period. The prevalence of Down Syndrome in the US is 400,000.
For a population of about 314 million that is a prevalence of
0.13% (400,000/314,000,000 x 100 = 0.13%). The incidence and
prevalence can also be expressed as a percentage.
Describe the effect of free cytosolic calcium. - CORRECT
ANSWERS- A destructive agent. Calcium is normally removed
from the cytosol by adenosine triphosphate (ATP)- dependent
, calcium pumps. In normal cells, calcium is bound to buffering
proteins, such as calbindin or paralbumin, and is contained in the
endoplasmic reticulum and the mitochondria. If there is abnormal
permeability of calcium ion channels, direct damage to
membranes, or depletion of ATP (i.e., hypoxic injury), calcium
level increases in the cytosol. If the free calcium cannot be
buffered or pumped out of cells, uncontrolled enzyme activation
takes place, causing further damage. Uncontrolled entry of
calcium into the cytosol is an important final pathway in many
causes of cell death.
The process of nuclear shrinkage. It is irreversible condition of
chromatin in the nucleus of a cell wall undergoing necrosis or
apoptosis. - CORRECT ANSWERS- Pyknosis
he destructive fragmentation of the nucleus of a cell- its
chromatin is disrupted irregularly throughout the cytoplasm -
CORRECT ANSWERS- karyorrhexis
Complete dissolution of the chromatin of a dying cell due to
enzymatic degradation by endonucleases. - CORRECT ANSWERS-
Karyolysis
-these 3 changes (Pyknosis, karyorrhexis, and karyolysis lead to
destruction of the nucleus- which will eventually cause the cell to
die)
Discuss the relationship of apoptosis to AIDS - CORRECT
ANSWERS- HIV indirectly triggers programmed cell
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY NSG 533,
2025/2026 WITH
CORRECT/ACCURATE ANSWERS
What are the five essential components of pathophysiology? -
CORRECT ANSWERS- 1. Etiology (Causative mechanisms)
2. Epidemiology (risk factors and distribution in populations)
3. Pathogenesis (disease mechanism)
4. clinical manifestations (signs, symptoms and diagnostic
criteria)
5. Outcomes (cure, remission, chronicity, or death)
Describe the pathophysiological basis of reperfusion injury -
CORRECT ANSWERS- When cells are deprived of oxygen, they
use their ATP stores and accumulate purine catabolites
hypoxanthine and xanthine. In reperfusion injury these are
metabolized into free radicals that cause membrane damage and
calcium overload. Cardia ischemia and reperfusion causes
excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS), pH alterations, osmotic
changes, gap junction changes, inflammatory signaling, and
calcium overload of the mitochondria. These changes also lead to
the opening of a large conductance pore on the mitochondrial
membrane called the mitochondrial permeability transition pore
with massive escape of ATP and solutes leading to cell death
activation (apoptosis).
,Discuss systematic manifestations of cellular injury - CORRECT
ANSWERS- 1. Fever
2. Increased heart rate
3. increase in number of leukocytes (leukocytosis)
4. presence of cellular enzymes in extracellular fluid
5. Lactate dehydrogenase
6. Creatine Kinase (CK)
7. Aspartate aminotransferase (AST)
8. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT)
9. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP)
10. Amylase
11. Aldolase
12. Troponins
Explain the pathogenesis and pathophysiologic effect(s) of
bilirubin and fat accumulation in the cell - CORRECT ANSWERS-
Two examples of endogenous accumulations are lipids (fat) and
bilirubin.
-Fatty changes occur most often in liver cells but can also be a
problem in myocardial cells. The liver handles fats and
synthesizes complex fats and lipoproteins all the time. Slow
accumulation of fat within hepatic or myocardial cells usually
does not impair the function of those cells until the problem is
,extreme. However, fatty change can occur on an acute basis and
can lead to acute heart or liver failure.
-Bilirubin is essentially a pigment that is released when RBCs
break down or are destroyed. This bilirubin is released or diffuses
into the blood where it is called unconjugated (indirect) bilirubin.
Unconjugated bilirubin is fat-soluble and cannot be eliminated
through the kidney (urine). The unconjugated bilirubin is then
taken up by the liver cells, bound to a substance called glucuronic
acid, and becomes bilirubin glucuronide or conjugated (direct)
bilirubin. Conjugate bilirubin is water soluble and can be
eliminated through the kidney.
How do you calculate incidence and prevalence of a disease? -
CORRECT ANSWERS- The incidence of a disease, as it is usually
defined, is the number of new cases occurring in a given
population within a given time period-usually 1 year. For example,
the incidence of Down Syndrome in the US is 1 in 690 births
(1/690 x 100 = 0.14%)
On the other hand, the prevalence of a disease involves the
number of cases existing (both old and new) in a given time
period. The prevalence of Down Syndrome in the US is 400,000.
For a population of about 314 million that is a prevalence of
0.13% (400,000/314,000,000 x 100 = 0.13%). The incidence and
prevalence can also be expressed as a percentage.
Describe the effect of free cytosolic calcium. - CORRECT
ANSWERS- A destructive agent. Calcium is normally removed
from the cytosol by adenosine triphosphate (ATP)- dependent
, calcium pumps. In normal cells, calcium is bound to buffering
proteins, such as calbindin or paralbumin, and is contained in the
endoplasmic reticulum and the mitochondria. If there is abnormal
permeability of calcium ion channels, direct damage to
membranes, or depletion of ATP (i.e., hypoxic injury), calcium
level increases in the cytosol. If the free calcium cannot be
buffered or pumped out of cells, uncontrolled enzyme activation
takes place, causing further damage. Uncontrolled entry of
calcium into the cytosol is an important final pathway in many
causes of cell death.
The process of nuclear shrinkage. It is irreversible condition of
chromatin in the nucleus of a cell wall undergoing necrosis or
apoptosis. - CORRECT ANSWERS- Pyknosis
he destructive fragmentation of the nucleus of a cell- its
chromatin is disrupted irregularly throughout the cytoplasm -
CORRECT ANSWERS- karyorrhexis
Complete dissolution of the chromatin of a dying cell due to
enzymatic degradation by endonucleases. - CORRECT ANSWERS-
Karyolysis
-these 3 changes (Pyknosis, karyorrhexis, and karyolysis lead to
destruction of the nucleus- which will eventually cause the cell to
die)
Discuss the relationship of apoptosis to AIDS - CORRECT
ANSWERS- HIV indirectly triggers programmed cell
