PNB 2274 Final Exam Review
Questions and Answers 100% Pass
anatomy - ✔✔how does it look?
physiology - ✔✔what does it do?
gross anatomy - ✔✔structures you can see with the naked eye
microscopic anatomy - ✔✔structures you can only see with magnification, cells/ tissues
anatomy position - ✔✔standing upright, palms facing out, feet on the floor, facing
forward
anterior - ✔✔orientation term, front
posterior - ✔✔orientation term, back
ventral - ✔✔orientation term, front (animal)
dorsal - ✔✔orientation term, back (animal)
medial - ✔✔orientation term, towards the middle
lateral - ✔✔orientation term, towards the side
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,proximal - ✔✔orientation term, close to
distal - ✔✔orientation term, far from
coronal plane - ✔✔frontal plane
transverse plane - ✔✔horizontal plane
midsaggital plane - ✔✔middle plane
homeostasis - ✔✔the tendency of an organism to maintain a stable internal
environment, though the external environment changes
reflex control - ✔✔long distance control of homeostasis, using either neural or hormonal
signals
local control - ✔✔control of homeostasis at a cellular level, isolated changes in a few
cells or a tissue (i.e. environment of the cell, fluid level, etc)
input, controller, output - ✔✔3 major components of homeostatic mechanism
input - ✔✔the signal of the homeostatic mechanism; something is changing and needs
to be adjusted; stimulus detected by a sensor
controller - ✔✔aka integrating center, makes a decision about what to do about the
stimulus, often the CNS
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,output - ✔✔in homeostatic mechanism, this signal is how the correction is made. Needs
a target or effector
set point - ✔✔in homeostatic mechanisms, this range determines what is within healthy
boundaries. A high enough error will result in an output. Can be modified (i.e. fever to
combat infection)
insulin - ✔✔lowers blood glucose levels to maintain homeostasis
glucagon - ✔✔increases blood glucose levels to maintain homeostasis
negative feedback - ✔✔feedback loops that works to return the state of the organism
back to the set point. Maintains homeostasis by counteracting disruption. Self
terminating
Positive feedback - ✔✔feedback loops that amplify the stimulus, output is fed back into
the system to increase output. These do not shut themselves off, require outside factors
positive feedback - ✔✔Hormone control during childbirth, lactation, and blood clotting
are examples of this type of feedback
negative feedback - ✔✔glucose levels, heart rate, etc. are examples of this type of
feedback
Katelyn Whitman, All Rights Reserved © 2025 3
, phospholipid bilayer - ✔✔composed of hydrophobic tails and heads; fluid mosaic;
forms the plasma membrane. Serves as a physical barrier, gateway for exchange,
communication, and attachment site
passive transport - ✔✔transport that requires no extra energy; movement occurs
randomly from areas of high concentration to low concentration
active transport - ✔✔transport that requires energy typically in the form of ATP;
molecules are moved from areas of low concentration to high concentration, AGAINST
concentration gradient
simple diffusion - ✔✔random motion of molecules in solution that results in spread of
molecules from areas of high concentration to low concentration. Net movement until
the concentrations are equal. Can occur in open system or across partition (plasma
membrane)
flux - ✔✔how much does a concentration drop over a distance; overall flow
Fick's Law - ✔✔describes the movement of molecules in 1 dimension. The overall flow
is the negative of the product of the diffusion coefficient and concentration gradient
Temperature, friction, area, membrane permeability, membrane thickness,
concentration gradient - ✔✔factors that affect the rate of diffusion
increased - ✔✔increased temperature results in ____________ rate of diffusion
Katelyn Whitman, All Rights Reserved © 2025 4
Questions and Answers 100% Pass
anatomy - ✔✔how does it look?
physiology - ✔✔what does it do?
gross anatomy - ✔✔structures you can see with the naked eye
microscopic anatomy - ✔✔structures you can only see with magnification, cells/ tissues
anatomy position - ✔✔standing upright, palms facing out, feet on the floor, facing
forward
anterior - ✔✔orientation term, front
posterior - ✔✔orientation term, back
ventral - ✔✔orientation term, front (animal)
dorsal - ✔✔orientation term, back (animal)
medial - ✔✔orientation term, towards the middle
lateral - ✔✔orientation term, towards the side
Katelyn Whitman, All Rights Reserved © 2025 1
,proximal - ✔✔orientation term, close to
distal - ✔✔orientation term, far from
coronal plane - ✔✔frontal plane
transverse plane - ✔✔horizontal plane
midsaggital plane - ✔✔middle plane
homeostasis - ✔✔the tendency of an organism to maintain a stable internal
environment, though the external environment changes
reflex control - ✔✔long distance control of homeostasis, using either neural or hormonal
signals
local control - ✔✔control of homeostasis at a cellular level, isolated changes in a few
cells or a tissue (i.e. environment of the cell, fluid level, etc)
input, controller, output - ✔✔3 major components of homeostatic mechanism
input - ✔✔the signal of the homeostatic mechanism; something is changing and needs
to be adjusted; stimulus detected by a sensor
controller - ✔✔aka integrating center, makes a decision about what to do about the
stimulus, often the CNS
Katelyn Whitman, All Rights Reserved © 2025 2
,output - ✔✔in homeostatic mechanism, this signal is how the correction is made. Needs
a target or effector
set point - ✔✔in homeostatic mechanisms, this range determines what is within healthy
boundaries. A high enough error will result in an output. Can be modified (i.e. fever to
combat infection)
insulin - ✔✔lowers blood glucose levels to maintain homeostasis
glucagon - ✔✔increases blood glucose levels to maintain homeostasis
negative feedback - ✔✔feedback loops that works to return the state of the organism
back to the set point. Maintains homeostasis by counteracting disruption. Self
terminating
Positive feedback - ✔✔feedback loops that amplify the stimulus, output is fed back into
the system to increase output. These do not shut themselves off, require outside factors
positive feedback - ✔✔Hormone control during childbirth, lactation, and blood clotting
are examples of this type of feedback
negative feedback - ✔✔glucose levels, heart rate, etc. are examples of this type of
feedback
Katelyn Whitman, All Rights Reserved © 2025 3
, phospholipid bilayer - ✔✔composed of hydrophobic tails and heads; fluid mosaic;
forms the plasma membrane. Serves as a physical barrier, gateway for exchange,
communication, and attachment site
passive transport - ✔✔transport that requires no extra energy; movement occurs
randomly from areas of high concentration to low concentration
active transport - ✔✔transport that requires energy typically in the form of ATP;
molecules are moved from areas of low concentration to high concentration, AGAINST
concentration gradient
simple diffusion - ✔✔random motion of molecules in solution that results in spread of
molecules from areas of high concentration to low concentration. Net movement until
the concentrations are equal. Can occur in open system or across partition (plasma
membrane)
flux - ✔✔how much does a concentration drop over a distance; overall flow
Fick's Law - ✔✔describes the movement of molecules in 1 dimension. The overall flow
is the negative of the product of the diffusion coefficient and concentration gradient
Temperature, friction, area, membrane permeability, membrane thickness,
concentration gradient - ✔✔factors that affect the rate of diffusion
increased - ✔✔increased temperature results in ____________ rate of diffusion
Katelyn Whitman, All Rights Reserved © 2025 4
