TEST BANK
Jarvis's Health Assessment and Physical Examination ANZ
Helen Forbes, and Elizabeth Watt
3rd Edition
,Table of Contents
Chapter 01 The Context and Frameworks of Health Assessment 1
Chapter 02 Critical Thinking in Health Assessment 4
Chapter 03 Developmental Tasks Across the Life Span 7
Chapter 04 Cultural Safety 15
Chapter 05 Screening for Family Violence and Abuse 20
Chapter 07 The Health Assessment Interview 24
Chapter 08 The Health History 36
Chapter 09 Physical Assessment Techniques 41
Chapter 10 General Survey and Vital Signs 50
Chapter 11 Mental Health Assessment 61
Chapter 12 Neurological Assessment 70
Chapter 13 Pain Assessment 85
Chapter 14 Eye Assessment 89
Chapter 15 Ear Assessment 95
Chapter 16 Peripheral Vascular Assessment 105
Chapter 17 Cardiac Assessment 114
Chapter 18 Upper Airways Assessment 124
Chapter 19 Lower Airways Assessment 129
Chapter 20 Musculoskeletal Assessment 136
Chapter 21 Nutritional and Metabolic Assessment 146
Chapter 22 Skin, Hair and Nails Assessment 159
Chapter 23 Abdominal Assessment 170
Chapter 24 Assessment of Urinary Function 176
Chapter 25 Assessment of Bowel Function 180
Chapter 26 Female Sexual and Reproductive Assessment 186
Chapter 27 Male Sexual and Reproductive Assessment 194
Chapter 28 Breasts Assessment 203
Chapter 29 Assessing the Pregnant Woman 212
,______________________________________________________________________________________________
Test Bank - Jarvis's Health Assessment and Physical Examination, 3rd Edition (Forbes, 2021)
Jarvis, Forbes & Watt: Jarvis’s Physical Examination & Health
Assessment, 3rd ANZ edition
Chapter 01: The Context and Frameworks of Health Assessment
Test Bank
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. The nurse asks their client about family history of cardiovascular disease. What type
of data would this be classified as?
a. Objective
b. Subjective
c. Informed
d. Precise
ANS: b
What the person states about themselves is considered subjective data.
REF: Page 2
2. The nurse observes their client’s respiratory rate. What type of data would this be
classified as?
a. Objective
b. Subjective
c. Informed
d. Precise
ANS: a
Data gathered by observing, inspecting, percussing, palpating and auscultation
is considered objective data.
REF: Page 2
3. According to the World Health Organization, what is health defined as?
a. The presence of wellbeing and absence of disease
b. Situations in which people are born, grow and live
c. The state of complete physical, mental and social well-being
d. The absence of disease and infirmity
ANS: c
The World Health Organization (WHO) (2019) defines health as ‘a state of
complete physical, mental, and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity’.
REF: Page 2
4. Which of the following is NOT a recognition of the social model of health?
a. The importance of health promotion and disease prevention.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
1|Page
,______________________________________________________________________________________________
Test Bank - Jarvis's Health Assessment and Physical Examination, 3rd Edition (Forbes, 2021)
b. The importance of encouraging a healthy lifestyle.
c. The social, economic and environmental determinants of health and illness.
d. The importance of working with sectors outside the health sector.
ANS: b
The social health model recognises:
• The social, economic and environmental determinants of health and
illness
• The importance of health promotion and disease prevention
• The importance of community participation in decision making
• The importance of working with working with sectors outside the health
sector
• That equity is an important outcome of health service intervention
REF: Page 3
5. What model recognises the view of health being the absence of disease?
a. Social model of health
b. Biomedical model of health
c. Holistic model of health
d. Health promotion and disease prevention
ANS: b
The biomedical model of western tradition views health as the absence of
disease.
REF: Page 3
6. What standard of care do consumers have the right to expect in Australia?
a. Clients with private health insurance receive priority.
b. Every person has the right of the highest standard of care.
c. Every taxpayer has the right to the highest standard of care.
d. Clients with a healthy, active lifestyle have priority over those who do not.
ANS: b
One of the principles of the Australian Charter of Healthcare Rights recognises
that every person has the right to the highest standard of care.
REF: Page 4
7. Which statement illustrates the biomedical model of western traditional views?
a. Health is viewed as the absence of disease.
b. Optimal health is viewed as high-level wellness.
c. Health and disease are considered a cyclical process.
d. The treatment of disease is nursing’s primary focus.
ANS: a
The biomedical model of western tradition views health as the absence of
disease.
REF: Page 3
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2|Page
,______________________________________________________________________________________________
Test Bank - Jarvis's Health Assessment and Physical Examination, 3rd Edition (Forbes, 2021)
8. Which of the following models of health aims to improve health outcomes, prevent
and reduce illness and address the inequalities and disadvantage that exist within the
community?
a. Biomedical model
b. Holistic health model
c. Social model
d. Wellness model
ANS: c
The social model of health acknowledges the effect of social, economic, cultural
and political factors and conditions on a person’s state of health and wellbeing.
REF: Page 3
______________________________________________________________________________________________
3|Page
,______________________________________________________________________________________________
Test Bank - Jarvis's Health Assessment and Physical Examination, 3rd Edition (Forbes, 2021)
Jarvis, Forbes & Watt: Jarvis’s Physical Examination & Health
Assessment, 3rd ANZ edition
Chapter 02: Critical Thinking in Health Assessment
Test Bank
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. After completing an initial assessment on a patient, the nurse has charted that his
respirations are eupnoeic and his pulse is 58. This type of data would be:
a. objective.
b. reflective.
c. subjective.
d. introspective.
ANS: a
Objective data are what the health professional observes by inspecting,
percussing, palpating and auscultating during the physical exam.
REF: Page 12
2. A patient tells the nurse that he is very nervous, that he is nauseated, and that he
‘feels hot’. This type of data would be:
a. objective.
b. reflective.
c. subjective.
d. introspective.
ANS: c
Subjective data are what the person says about themself during history taking.
REF: Page 12
3. Novice nurses, without a background of skills and experience to draw from, are
more likely to make their decisions using:
a. intuition.
b. a set of rules.
c. articles in journals.
d. advice from supervisors.
ANS: b
Novice nurses operate from a set of rules.
REF: Page 14
______________________________________________________________________________________________
4|Page
,______________________________________________________________________________________________
Test Bank - Jarvis's Health Assessment and Physical Examination, 3rd Edition (Forbes, 2021)
4. Expert nurses learn to attend to a pattern of assessment data based on past
experiences. This is referred to as:
a. intuition.
b. the nursing process.
c. clinical knowledge.
d. diagnostic reasoning.
ANS: a
Intuition is characterised by pattern recognition—expert nurses learn to attend
to a pattern of assessment data and act without consciously labelling it.
REF: Page 14
5. Which critical thinking skill helps the nurse to see relationships among the data?
a. Validation
b. Clustering related cues
c. Identifying gaps in data
d. Distinguishing relevant from irrelevant
ANS: b
Clustering related cues helps the nurse to see relationships among the data.
REF: Page 12
6. The nurse knows that developing appropriate nursing interventions for a patient
relies on the appropriateness of the:
a. nursing diagnosis.
b. medical diagnosis.
c. admission diagnosis.
d. collaborative diagnosis.
ANS: a
An accurate nursing diagnosis provides the basis for selection of nursing
interventions to achieve outcomes for which the nurse is accountable.
REF: Page 13
7. What is the step of the nursing process that includes data collection by health
history, physical examination and interview?
a. Planning
b. Diagnosis
c. Evaluation
d. Assessment
ANS: d
Data collection, including performing the health history, physical examination
and interview, is the assessment step of the nursing process.
REF: Page 12
8. When nursing diagnoses are being classified, which of the following would be
considered a potential health diagnosis?
______________________________________________________________________________________________
5|Page
,______________________________________________________________________________________________
Test Bank - Jarvis's Health Assessment and Physical Examination, 3rd Edition (Forbes, 2021)
a. Identifying existing levels of wellness.
b. Evaluating previous problems and goals.
c. Identifying potential problems the individual may develop.
d. Focusing on strengths and reflecting an individual’s transition to higher
levels of wellness.
ANS: c
Potential health diagnoses are potential problems that an individual does not
currently have but is particularly vulnerable to develop.
REF: Page 13
9. Which term best describes a proficient nurse?
a. A nurse who has little experience with a specified population and uses rules
to guide performance.
b. A nurse who has an intuitive grasp of a clinical situation and quickly
identifies the accurate solution.
c. A nurse who sees actions in the context of daily plans for patients.
d. A nurse who understands a patient situation as a whole rather than a list of
tasks and sees long-term goals for the patient.
ANS: d
The proficient nurse, with more time and experience than the novice nurse, is
able to understand a patient situation as a whole rather than as a list of tasks
and is able to see how today’s nursing actions apply to the point the nurse wants
the patient to reach at a future time.
REF: Page 14
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6|Page
,______________________________________________________________________________________________
Test Bank - Jarvis's Health Assessment and Physical Examination, 3rd Edition (Forbes, 2021)
Jarvis, Forbes & Watt: Jarvis’s Physical Examination & Health
Assessment, 3rd ANZ edition
Chapter 03: Developmental Tasks Across the Life Span
Test Bank
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. If a mother hides a block under her baby’s blanket and the baby looks for it, the
nurse understands that the baby has begun to develop the concept of:
a. relativism.
b. object prehension.
c. separation anxiety.
d. object permanence.
ANS: d
Gradually the infant learns that objects and people continue to exist even when
they are no longer in sight. This starts at about 7 months when the infant
searches for an object that is partially hidden but does not search for one
completely out of sight.
REF: Page 18
2. A baby can sit alone before they are able to crawl. This is true because development
of gross motor skills:
a. occurs in a cephalocaudal direction.
b. occurs in a distal to proximal direction.
c. is generally the result of a baby’s chronological age.
d. is simply the result of the baby’s increased desire to move.
ANS: a
A baby’s development of gross motor skills is predictable because it follows the
direction of myelinisation (laying down of myelin) in the nervous system,
cephalocaudal (head to foot direction), and proximodistal (central to peripheral
direction or midline before extremities).
REF: Page 19
3. Being able to think about history and philosophy and analyse and use scientific
reasoning corresponds to which of Piaget’s stages?
a. Formal operations
b. Sensorimotor skills
c. Concrete operations
d. Preoperational skills
ANS: a
______________________________________________________________________________________________
7|Page
, ______________________________________________________________________________________________
Test Bank - Jarvis's Health Assessment and Physical Examination, 3rd Edition (Forbes, 2021)
Adolescence corresponds to Piaget’s fourth stage, in which the person focuses
on formal operations and the ability to develop abstract thinking, deal with
hypothetical situations and make logical conclusions from reviewing evidence.
The adolescent is no longer limited to the present but can ponder the lessons of
the past and the possibilities of the future. The adolescent now can analyse and
use scientific reasoning.
REF: Page 29
4. The developmental crisis of generativity versus stagnation could be resolved by:
a. travelling around the world.
b. having and raising a family.
c. buying a large house and filling it with loved belongings.
d. changing jobs frequently to get a feel for what was ‘missed in youth’.
ANS: b
Erikson believed that during the middle years adults have the urge to
contribute to the next generation. This need can be fulfilled either by producing
the next generation or by producing something to pass on to the next
generation.
REF: Page 32
5. Which of the following statements best describes the tasks of late adulthood?
a. Older adults must quickly try to resolve the conflicts of earlier times.
b. Older adults must accept that they cannot change the past and make peace
with their lives.
c. Older adults generally feel great sadness and worry about death; this allows
them to accept their mortality.
d. Older adults must never feel satisfied with their lives because it gives them
goals to achieve in the future.
ANS: b
This period relates to Erikson’s last stage, with its key polarity of integrity
versus despair. A successful resolution to this final conflict occurs when the
adult accepts ‘one’s one and only life cycle as something that had to be and that,
by necessity, permitted of no substitutions’ (1963). The adult feels content with
their one life on earth, satisfied that if it were possible to do it over again, they
would live it the same way.
REF: Page 35
6. A 24-month-old child comes to the clinic for a well-child visit. His mother describes
him as a child who falls apart if she changes even the smallest thing in his
environment. The nurse tells his mother that this behaviour:
a. is unusual in a toddler because negativism generally doesn’t emerge until age
3.
b. indicates that he is insecure and probably hasn’t successfully developed trust
in infancy.
c. can be expected from a toddler because they typically experience ritualism
______________________________________________________________________________________________
8|Page
Jarvis's Health Assessment and Physical Examination ANZ
Helen Forbes, and Elizabeth Watt
3rd Edition
,Table of Contents
Chapter 01 The Context and Frameworks of Health Assessment 1
Chapter 02 Critical Thinking in Health Assessment 4
Chapter 03 Developmental Tasks Across the Life Span 7
Chapter 04 Cultural Safety 15
Chapter 05 Screening for Family Violence and Abuse 20
Chapter 07 The Health Assessment Interview 24
Chapter 08 The Health History 36
Chapter 09 Physical Assessment Techniques 41
Chapter 10 General Survey and Vital Signs 50
Chapter 11 Mental Health Assessment 61
Chapter 12 Neurological Assessment 70
Chapter 13 Pain Assessment 85
Chapter 14 Eye Assessment 89
Chapter 15 Ear Assessment 95
Chapter 16 Peripheral Vascular Assessment 105
Chapter 17 Cardiac Assessment 114
Chapter 18 Upper Airways Assessment 124
Chapter 19 Lower Airways Assessment 129
Chapter 20 Musculoskeletal Assessment 136
Chapter 21 Nutritional and Metabolic Assessment 146
Chapter 22 Skin, Hair and Nails Assessment 159
Chapter 23 Abdominal Assessment 170
Chapter 24 Assessment of Urinary Function 176
Chapter 25 Assessment of Bowel Function 180
Chapter 26 Female Sexual and Reproductive Assessment 186
Chapter 27 Male Sexual and Reproductive Assessment 194
Chapter 28 Breasts Assessment 203
Chapter 29 Assessing the Pregnant Woman 212
,______________________________________________________________________________________________
Test Bank - Jarvis's Health Assessment and Physical Examination, 3rd Edition (Forbes, 2021)
Jarvis, Forbes & Watt: Jarvis’s Physical Examination & Health
Assessment, 3rd ANZ edition
Chapter 01: The Context and Frameworks of Health Assessment
Test Bank
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. The nurse asks their client about family history of cardiovascular disease. What type
of data would this be classified as?
a. Objective
b. Subjective
c. Informed
d. Precise
ANS: b
What the person states about themselves is considered subjective data.
REF: Page 2
2. The nurse observes their client’s respiratory rate. What type of data would this be
classified as?
a. Objective
b. Subjective
c. Informed
d. Precise
ANS: a
Data gathered by observing, inspecting, percussing, palpating and auscultation
is considered objective data.
REF: Page 2
3. According to the World Health Organization, what is health defined as?
a. The presence of wellbeing and absence of disease
b. Situations in which people are born, grow and live
c. The state of complete physical, mental and social well-being
d. The absence of disease and infirmity
ANS: c
The World Health Organization (WHO) (2019) defines health as ‘a state of
complete physical, mental, and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of
disease or infirmity’.
REF: Page 2
4. Which of the following is NOT a recognition of the social model of health?
a. The importance of health promotion and disease prevention.
______________________________________________________________________________________________
1|Page
,______________________________________________________________________________________________
Test Bank - Jarvis's Health Assessment and Physical Examination, 3rd Edition (Forbes, 2021)
b. The importance of encouraging a healthy lifestyle.
c. The social, economic and environmental determinants of health and illness.
d. The importance of working with sectors outside the health sector.
ANS: b
The social health model recognises:
• The social, economic and environmental determinants of health and
illness
• The importance of health promotion and disease prevention
• The importance of community participation in decision making
• The importance of working with working with sectors outside the health
sector
• That equity is an important outcome of health service intervention
REF: Page 3
5. What model recognises the view of health being the absence of disease?
a. Social model of health
b. Biomedical model of health
c. Holistic model of health
d. Health promotion and disease prevention
ANS: b
The biomedical model of western tradition views health as the absence of
disease.
REF: Page 3
6. What standard of care do consumers have the right to expect in Australia?
a. Clients with private health insurance receive priority.
b. Every person has the right of the highest standard of care.
c. Every taxpayer has the right to the highest standard of care.
d. Clients with a healthy, active lifestyle have priority over those who do not.
ANS: b
One of the principles of the Australian Charter of Healthcare Rights recognises
that every person has the right to the highest standard of care.
REF: Page 4
7. Which statement illustrates the biomedical model of western traditional views?
a. Health is viewed as the absence of disease.
b. Optimal health is viewed as high-level wellness.
c. Health and disease are considered a cyclical process.
d. The treatment of disease is nursing’s primary focus.
ANS: a
The biomedical model of western tradition views health as the absence of
disease.
REF: Page 3
______________________________________________________________________________________________
2|Page
,______________________________________________________________________________________________
Test Bank - Jarvis's Health Assessment and Physical Examination, 3rd Edition (Forbes, 2021)
8. Which of the following models of health aims to improve health outcomes, prevent
and reduce illness and address the inequalities and disadvantage that exist within the
community?
a. Biomedical model
b. Holistic health model
c. Social model
d. Wellness model
ANS: c
The social model of health acknowledges the effect of social, economic, cultural
and political factors and conditions on a person’s state of health and wellbeing.
REF: Page 3
______________________________________________________________________________________________
3|Page
,______________________________________________________________________________________________
Test Bank - Jarvis's Health Assessment and Physical Examination, 3rd Edition (Forbes, 2021)
Jarvis, Forbes & Watt: Jarvis’s Physical Examination & Health
Assessment, 3rd ANZ edition
Chapter 02: Critical Thinking in Health Assessment
Test Bank
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. After completing an initial assessment on a patient, the nurse has charted that his
respirations are eupnoeic and his pulse is 58. This type of data would be:
a. objective.
b. reflective.
c. subjective.
d. introspective.
ANS: a
Objective data are what the health professional observes by inspecting,
percussing, palpating and auscultating during the physical exam.
REF: Page 12
2. A patient tells the nurse that he is very nervous, that he is nauseated, and that he
‘feels hot’. This type of data would be:
a. objective.
b. reflective.
c. subjective.
d. introspective.
ANS: c
Subjective data are what the person says about themself during history taking.
REF: Page 12
3. Novice nurses, without a background of skills and experience to draw from, are
more likely to make their decisions using:
a. intuition.
b. a set of rules.
c. articles in journals.
d. advice from supervisors.
ANS: b
Novice nurses operate from a set of rules.
REF: Page 14
______________________________________________________________________________________________
4|Page
,______________________________________________________________________________________________
Test Bank - Jarvis's Health Assessment and Physical Examination, 3rd Edition (Forbes, 2021)
4. Expert nurses learn to attend to a pattern of assessment data based on past
experiences. This is referred to as:
a. intuition.
b. the nursing process.
c. clinical knowledge.
d. diagnostic reasoning.
ANS: a
Intuition is characterised by pattern recognition—expert nurses learn to attend
to a pattern of assessment data and act without consciously labelling it.
REF: Page 14
5. Which critical thinking skill helps the nurse to see relationships among the data?
a. Validation
b. Clustering related cues
c. Identifying gaps in data
d. Distinguishing relevant from irrelevant
ANS: b
Clustering related cues helps the nurse to see relationships among the data.
REF: Page 12
6. The nurse knows that developing appropriate nursing interventions for a patient
relies on the appropriateness of the:
a. nursing diagnosis.
b. medical diagnosis.
c. admission diagnosis.
d. collaborative diagnosis.
ANS: a
An accurate nursing diagnosis provides the basis for selection of nursing
interventions to achieve outcomes for which the nurse is accountable.
REF: Page 13
7. What is the step of the nursing process that includes data collection by health
history, physical examination and interview?
a. Planning
b. Diagnosis
c. Evaluation
d. Assessment
ANS: d
Data collection, including performing the health history, physical examination
and interview, is the assessment step of the nursing process.
REF: Page 12
8. When nursing diagnoses are being classified, which of the following would be
considered a potential health diagnosis?
______________________________________________________________________________________________
5|Page
,______________________________________________________________________________________________
Test Bank - Jarvis's Health Assessment and Physical Examination, 3rd Edition (Forbes, 2021)
a. Identifying existing levels of wellness.
b. Evaluating previous problems and goals.
c. Identifying potential problems the individual may develop.
d. Focusing on strengths and reflecting an individual’s transition to higher
levels of wellness.
ANS: c
Potential health diagnoses are potential problems that an individual does not
currently have but is particularly vulnerable to develop.
REF: Page 13
9. Which term best describes a proficient nurse?
a. A nurse who has little experience with a specified population and uses rules
to guide performance.
b. A nurse who has an intuitive grasp of a clinical situation and quickly
identifies the accurate solution.
c. A nurse who sees actions in the context of daily plans for patients.
d. A nurse who understands a patient situation as a whole rather than a list of
tasks and sees long-term goals for the patient.
ANS: d
The proficient nurse, with more time and experience than the novice nurse, is
able to understand a patient situation as a whole rather than as a list of tasks
and is able to see how today’s nursing actions apply to the point the nurse wants
the patient to reach at a future time.
REF: Page 14
______________________________________________________________________________________________
6|Page
,______________________________________________________________________________________________
Test Bank - Jarvis's Health Assessment and Physical Examination, 3rd Edition (Forbes, 2021)
Jarvis, Forbes & Watt: Jarvis’s Physical Examination & Health
Assessment, 3rd ANZ edition
Chapter 03: Developmental Tasks Across the Life Span
Test Bank
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. If a mother hides a block under her baby’s blanket and the baby looks for it, the
nurse understands that the baby has begun to develop the concept of:
a. relativism.
b. object prehension.
c. separation anxiety.
d. object permanence.
ANS: d
Gradually the infant learns that objects and people continue to exist even when
they are no longer in sight. This starts at about 7 months when the infant
searches for an object that is partially hidden but does not search for one
completely out of sight.
REF: Page 18
2. A baby can sit alone before they are able to crawl. This is true because development
of gross motor skills:
a. occurs in a cephalocaudal direction.
b. occurs in a distal to proximal direction.
c. is generally the result of a baby’s chronological age.
d. is simply the result of the baby’s increased desire to move.
ANS: a
A baby’s development of gross motor skills is predictable because it follows the
direction of myelinisation (laying down of myelin) in the nervous system,
cephalocaudal (head to foot direction), and proximodistal (central to peripheral
direction or midline before extremities).
REF: Page 19
3. Being able to think about history and philosophy and analyse and use scientific
reasoning corresponds to which of Piaget’s stages?
a. Formal operations
b. Sensorimotor skills
c. Concrete operations
d. Preoperational skills
ANS: a
______________________________________________________________________________________________
7|Page
, ______________________________________________________________________________________________
Test Bank - Jarvis's Health Assessment and Physical Examination, 3rd Edition (Forbes, 2021)
Adolescence corresponds to Piaget’s fourth stage, in which the person focuses
on formal operations and the ability to develop abstract thinking, deal with
hypothetical situations and make logical conclusions from reviewing evidence.
The adolescent is no longer limited to the present but can ponder the lessons of
the past and the possibilities of the future. The adolescent now can analyse and
use scientific reasoning.
REF: Page 29
4. The developmental crisis of generativity versus stagnation could be resolved by:
a. travelling around the world.
b. having and raising a family.
c. buying a large house and filling it with loved belongings.
d. changing jobs frequently to get a feel for what was ‘missed in youth’.
ANS: b
Erikson believed that during the middle years adults have the urge to
contribute to the next generation. This need can be fulfilled either by producing
the next generation or by producing something to pass on to the next
generation.
REF: Page 32
5. Which of the following statements best describes the tasks of late adulthood?
a. Older adults must quickly try to resolve the conflicts of earlier times.
b. Older adults must accept that they cannot change the past and make peace
with their lives.
c. Older adults generally feel great sadness and worry about death; this allows
them to accept their mortality.
d. Older adults must never feel satisfied with their lives because it gives them
goals to achieve in the future.
ANS: b
This period relates to Erikson’s last stage, with its key polarity of integrity
versus despair. A successful resolution to this final conflict occurs when the
adult accepts ‘one’s one and only life cycle as something that had to be and that,
by necessity, permitted of no substitutions’ (1963). The adult feels content with
their one life on earth, satisfied that if it were possible to do it over again, they
would live it the same way.
REF: Page 35
6. A 24-month-old child comes to the clinic for a well-child visit. His mother describes
him as a child who falls apart if she changes even the smallest thing in his
environment. The nurse tells his mother that this behaviour:
a. is unusual in a toddler because negativism generally doesn’t emerge until age
3.
b. indicates that he is insecure and probably hasn’t successfully developed trust
in infancy.
c. can be expected from a toddler because they typically experience ritualism
______________________________________________________________________________________________
8|Page
