10/14/24, 9:48 What w e need to know for Patho Exam 3 +
AM Practice Test
Intrarenal Disorders (12)
● Azotemia – abnormal elevation of nitrogenous waste
● Anasarca – generalized edema in patients with hypoalbuminemia
- seen in patients with nephrotic syndrome
● Uremia – syndrome that involves elevation of nitrogenous
wastes, fatigue, anorexia, nausea, vomiting
● Osmolality – concentration of a solution in terms of solutes to solvents
● GFR – glomerular filtration rate – volume of filtrate entering
Bowman’s capsule per unit of time. In adult, it is 135 mL/min.
● Renin – hormone released by the kidney that responds to a decrease in BP
● Erythropoietin – secreted by kidney, stimulates bone marrow to
produce RBC in response to tissue hypoxia.
● Glomerulonephritis - This is an inflammatory problem whereas
pyelonephritis is an infectious problem (pye is infectious!)
● Pathology of acute glomerulonephritis:
○ Increase in membrane permeability because of
inflammation (or the swelling)– leads to proteinuria and
hematuria
○ Decrease in GFR leads to increase in serum creatinine,
azotemia, oliguria, edema
● Glomerulonephritis clinical manifestations in kids:
○ Kids the presenting clinical manifestations is smoky or cocoa
colored urine (hematuria)
● Nephrotic syndrome pathophysiology
○ Loss of large amounts of proteins in urine
○ Proteinuria leads to hypoalbuminemia and generalized edema as
a result of decreased colloid osmotic pressure
● Why would someone with kidney disease have a low hematocrit level
○ He does not have enough erythropoietin
○ Also hyperkalemic
■ Lose sodium, retain potassium
● During acute tubular necrosis, what could happen to the specific gravity of
urine?
○ Sometimes 1 which is the specific gravity of water
○ Not being able to concentrate anything
● Patients with kidney disease are also anemic because they are
not making enough erythropoietin
● Know the difference between nephrotic and uremic syndrome
○ Slide 85
Alterations in GU (14 questions)
● Stress incontinence
about:blan 1/
k 34
,10/14/24, 9:48 What w e need to know for Patho Exam 3 +
AM Practice Test
○ Due to weakening of pelvic muscles
● Urge incontinence
○ Due to overactive detrusor muscle
● Know all the different types of incontinence
● Enuresis
○
● Powerpoint in red of what you have to know
● Etiology, pathophysiology, and clinical manifestations of BPH
● Know the abnormal uterine bleeding patterns
○ Metorrhagia
○ Hypomenorrhea
○ Oligomenorrhea
○ Polymenorrhea
○ Menorrhagia
○ Dysfunctional uterine bleeding
○ Dysmenorrhea
■ Know etiology and pathophysiology
● Ovarian cancer
○ Most common of all these types of cancers
○ Cancer of AGING where the other two previously were of younger
women
○ Usually asymptomatic so carries a high mortality rate
● Fibrocystic breast disease versus breast cancer
○ Disease: tender, mobile, firm, regular in shape
○ Breast cancer: painless, hard, and fixed
● Clinical manifestations of breast cancer
○ Painless, hard, poorly moveable lump
○ •Dimpling of the skin
○ •Nipple retraction
○ •Changes in breast contour
○ •Bloody discharge from nipple
● Organisms of certain diseases
○ Syphilis
○ Nongonococcal urethritis
○ Gonococcal
○ Bacterial prostatitis
○ Vulvovaginitis
○ HPV af
about:blan 2/
k 34
,10/14/24, 9:48 What w e need to know for Patho Exam 3 +
AM Practice Test
○ Cystitis
○ Yeast vaginitis
○ Epididymitis
Alterations in GI (16 questions)
● Types of dysphagia - know the difference between them
○ Type 1
■ Problems in delivery of food/fluid into esophagus
■ Causes
● R/T neuromuscular incoordination/disorders –
USUALLY A PATIENT WITH A STROKE
● Normal sequence is altered or absent
■ –Clinical manifestations
● May cough and expel the ingested food/fluids
● Aspirate when attempting to swallow
● Worse with liquids than solids
○ Type 2
■ Problems in transport of bolus down esophagus (toward
the LES, in the middle)
■ Causes
● Outpouchings of one or more layers (diverticula)
● Disorder of smooth muscle function (achalasia)
● Structural interference of esophageal peristaltic
activity (neoplasms, strictures)
● Abnormal peristaltic activity
■ –Clinical manifestations
● Sensation food is “stuck” behind sternum
● Initially with solid food, may progress to liquids
○ Type 3
■ Problems in bolus entry into stomach
■ Causes
● Lower esophageal dysfunction or lesion obstruction
■ Clinical manifestations
● Tightness or pain in substernal area during
swallowing process – they talk about their heart
burn right below the sternum
● Vomiting
○ •Associated with alterations in integrity of the GI tract wall
(what has happened to the lining of the GI tract) or alterations
in motility of the GI tract – food stays there because
peristalsis stops
● Complication of constipation
about:blan 3/
k 34
, 10/14/24, 9:48 What w e need to know for Patho Exam 3 +
AM Practice Test
○ Fecal impaction
○ Seen a lot in elderly
● Stomatitis
○ Common cause: candida albicans
○ Breast feeding infants and people on chemotherapy - open sores
● GERD
○ •Backflow of highly acidic gastric contents through the LES
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------inflammation
caused by reflux of highly acidic material.
○ Persistence may result in esophagitis
○ Progression can lead to barrett esophagus
○ An etiology: Gastroparesis delayed emptying of something
due to
decreased peristalsis. Food sits there. More irritation. Can lead to
stomach contents spilling back up into esophagus
○ Pathophysiology: an imbalance between defensive factors
protecting the esophagus and aggressive factors from the
stomach contents.
Mr. Sander is 67 years old with a long history of knee osteoarthritis for
which he self- medicates regularly with over-the-counter (OTC) naproxen.
He is in the clinic today complaining of a swallowing difficulty that has
progressively worsened over the past several months.. He denies
significant past medical history. A review of systems is negative except for
arthritic symptoms and swallowing difficulty. He denies noticing blood in his
stool or vomiting blood. He denies history of gastroesophageal reflux
disease (GERD) or ulcer. He does not drink alcohol, although he drank
heavily many years ago. He does not smoke. The dysphagia is described
as “food gets stuck in my throat and I can't get it down.” The feeling occurs
only after he has ingested solid food; liquids are not a problem. There is
burning chest pain associated with meals.
■ Dysphagia
■ Burning chest pain GERD
● H. pylori is usually a factor of gastritis
● Peptic ulcer disease
○ Upper GI tract
○ Ulcers located in esophagus, stomach, or duodenum
○ Most are associated with NSAID use or H pylori infection
○ Gastric peptic ulcer disease
■ Due to breakdown of protective mucous layer that
normally prevents diffusion of acids into gastric
epithelia due to chronic irritations Aspirin ,
NSAIDs, alcohol, and bile acids
■ has no correlation to food intake. Food does not take away the
pain
○ Duodenal peptic ulcer disease
■ Inappropriate excess secretion of acid that spills
through the pylorus into the duodenum
■ eating makes the pain go away. Taking a lot of
antacids. Eating small frequent meals.
● Crohn’s disease (know the difference between this and ulcerative colitis)
○ Affects proximal portion of the colon or terminal ileum
○ Inflammation of ALL layers - full thickness of bowel wall
○ Cobblestone or skip lesions
about:blan 4/
k 34
AM Practice Test
Intrarenal Disorders (12)
● Azotemia – abnormal elevation of nitrogenous waste
● Anasarca – generalized edema in patients with hypoalbuminemia
- seen in patients with nephrotic syndrome
● Uremia – syndrome that involves elevation of nitrogenous
wastes, fatigue, anorexia, nausea, vomiting
● Osmolality – concentration of a solution in terms of solutes to solvents
● GFR – glomerular filtration rate – volume of filtrate entering
Bowman’s capsule per unit of time. In adult, it is 135 mL/min.
● Renin – hormone released by the kidney that responds to a decrease in BP
● Erythropoietin – secreted by kidney, stimulates bone marrow to
produce RBC in response to tissue hypoxia.
● Glomerulonephritis - This is an inflammatory problem whereas
pyelonephritis is an infectious problem (pye is infectious!)
● Pathology of acute glomerulonephritis:
○ Increase in membrane permeability because of
inflammation (or the swelling)– leads to proteinuria and
hematuria
○ Decrease in GFR leads to increase in serum creatinine,
azotemia, oliguria, edema
● Glomerulonephritis clinical manifestations in kids:
○ Kids the presenting clinical manifestations is smoky or cocoa
colored urine (hematuria)
● Nephrotic syndrome pathophysiology
○ Loss of large amounts of proteins in urine
○ Proteinuria leads to hypoalbuminemia and generalized edema as
a result of decreased colloid osmotic pressure
● Why would someone with kidney disease have a low hematocrit level
○ He does not have enough erythropoietin
○ Also hyperkalemic
■ Lose sodium, retain potassium
● During acute tubular necrosis, what could happen to the specific gravity of
urine?
○ Sometimes 1 which is the specific gravity of water
○ Not being able to concentrate anything
● Patients with kidney disease are also anemic because they are
not making enough erythropoietin
● Know the difference between nephrotic and uremic syndrome
○ Slide 85
Alterations in GU (14 questions)
● Stress incontinence
about:blan 1/
k 34
,10/14/24, 9:48 What w e need to know for Patho Exam 3 +
AM Practice Test
○ Due to weakening of pelvic muscles
● Urge incontinence
○ Due to overactive detrusor muscle
● Know all the different types of incontinence
● Enuresis
○
● Powerpoint in red of what you have to know
● Etiology, pathophysiology, and clinical manifestations of BPH
● Know the abnormal uterine bleeding patterns
○ Metorrhagia
○ Hypomenorrhea
○ Oligomenorrhea
○ Polymenorrhea
○ Menorrhagia
○ Dysfunctional uterine bleeding
○ Dysmenorrhea
■ Know etiology and pathophysiology
● Ovarian cancer
○ Most common of all these types of cancers
○ Cancer of AGING where the other two previously were of younger
women
○ Usually asymptomatic so carries a high mortality rate
● Fibrocystic breast disease versus breast cancer
○ Disease: tender, mobile, firm, regular in shape
○ Breast cancer: painless, hard, and fixed
● Clinical manifestations of breast cancer
○ Painless, hard, poorly moveable lump
○ •Dimpling of the skin
○ •Nipple retraction
○ •Changes in breast contour
○ •Bloody discharge from nipple
● Organisms of certain diseases
○ Syphilis
○ Nongonococcal urethritis
○ Gonococcal
○ Bacterial prostatitis
○ Vulvovaginitis
○ HPV af
about:blan 2/
k 34
,10/14/24, 9:48 What w e need to know for Patho Exam 3 +
AM Practice Test
○ Cystitis
○ Yeast vaginitis
○ Epididymitis
Alterations in GI (16 questions)
● Types of dysphagia - know the difference between them
○ Type 1
■ Problems in delivery of food/fluid into esophagus
■ Causes
● R/T neuromuscular incoordination/disorders –
USUALLY A PATIENT WITH A STROKE
● Normal sequence is altered or absent
■ –Clinical manifestations
● May cough and expel the ingested food/fluids
● Aspirate when attempting to swallow
● Worse with liquids than solids
○ Type 2
■ Problems in transport of bolus down esophagus (toward
the LES, in the middle)
■ Causes
● Outpouchings of one or more layers (diverticula)
● Disorder of smooth muscle function (achalasia)
● Structural interference of esophageal peristaltic
activity (neoplasms, strictures)
● Abnormal peristaltic activity
■ –Clinical manifestations
● Sensation food is “stuck” behind sternum
● Initially with solid food, may progress to liquids
○ Type 3
■ Problems in bolus entry into stomach
■ Causes
● Lower esophageal dysfunction or lesion obstruction
■ Clinical manifestations
● Tightness or pain in substernal area during
swallowing process – they talk about their heart
burn right below the sternum
● Vomiting
○ •Associated with alterations in integrity of the GI tract wall
(what has happened to the lining of the GI tract) or alterations
in motility of the GI tract – food stays there because
peristalsis stops
● Complication of constipation
about:blan 3/
k 34
, 10/14/24, 9:48 What w e need to know for Patho Exam 3 +
AM Practice Test
○ Fecal impaction
○ Seen a lot in elderly
● Stomatitis
○ Common cause: candida albicans
○ Breast feeding infants and people on chemotherapy - open sores
● GERD
○ •Backflow of highly acidic gastric contents through the LES
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------inflammation
caused by reflux of highly acidic material.
○ Persistence may result in esophagitis
○ Progression can lead to barrett esophagus
○ An etiology: Gastroparesis delayed emptying of something
due to
decreased peristalsis. Food sits there. More irritation. Can lead to
stomach contents spilling back up into esophagus
○ Pathophysiology: an imbalance between defensive factors
protecting the esophagus and aggressive factors from the
stomach contents.
Mr. Sander is 67 years old with a long history of knee osteoarthritis for
which he self- medicates regularly with over-the-counter (OTC) naproxen.
He is in the clinic today complaining of a swallowing difficulty that has
progressively worsened over the past several months.. He denies
significant past medical history. A review of systems is negative except for
arthritic symptoms and swallowing difficulty. He denies noticing blood in his
stool or vomiting blood. He denies history of gastroesophageal reflux
disease (GERD) or ulcer. He does not drink alcohol, although he drank
heavily many years ago. He does not smoke. The dysphagia is described
as “food gets stuck in my throat and I can't get it down.” The feeling occurs
only after he has ingested solid food; liquids are not a problem. There is
burning chest pain associated with meals.
■ Dysphagia
■ Burning chest pain GERD
● H. pylori is usually a factor of gastritis
● Peptic ulcer disease
○ Upper GI tract
○ Ulcers located in esophagus, stomach, or duodenum
○ Most are associated with NSAID use or H pylori infection
○ Gastric peptic ulcer disease
■ Due to breakdown of protective mucous layer that
normally prevents diffusion of acids into gastric
epithelia due to chronic irritations Aspirin ,
NSAIDs, alcohol, and bile acids
■ has no correlation to food intake. Food does not take away the
pain
○ Duodenal peptic ulcer disease
■ Inappropriate excess secretion of acid that spills
through the pylorus into the duodenum
■ eating makes the pain go away. Taking a lot of
antacids. Eating small frequent meals.
● Crohn’s disease (know the difference between this and ulcerative colitis)
○ Affects proximal portion of the colon or terminal ileum
○ Inflammation of ALL layers - full thickness of bowel wall
○ Cobblestone or skip lesions
about:blan 4/
k 34
