EBT FINAL EXAM QUESTIONS

Behavioral Cusp - ANS- A cusp can be defined by access to new environments and reinforcers, generativeness, competition with inappropriate responses, the number and relative importance of people affected, and social validity Define prompt and state the terminal goal of prompting. - ANS- A supplementary stimulus that increases the likelihood of a correct response, the terminal goal of prompting is always for responding to occur in the presence of the natural environmental cues in the absence of prompts What are the two decisions that must be made when using prompts? - ANS- What type of prompt, how to fade Response prompt - ANS- supplementary stimuli that guide a response during learning Example: delayed cue, graduated guidance, MTL, LTM Stimulus prompt - ANS- supplementary stimuli that are used to guide learner to respond correctly to a stimulus, changes a stimulus Example: stimulus fading, stimulus shaping, position cues Extra-stimulus prompt - ANS- supplementary to the target stimulus, different form Within-stimulus prompt - ANS- a distinctive manipulation of color, shape, or size within the target discriminative What does it mean to transfer stimulus control? Why is transfer of stimulus control an important element of any teaching procedure that involves prompting? - ANS- Response that was controlled by the prompt comes to be controlled by the instructional target stimulus. If you don't transfer stimulus control, responding will be dependent on the prompt. Describe the process for implementing and fading a delayed prompting procedure. - ANS- Immediate prompt, wait two seconds, wait four seconds, independent Describe what is meant by the following statement: "The delayed cue method is often a useful procedure for transferring stimulus control but can also produce prompt dependency (Ahearn et al., 2007, p. 62)." - ANS- Fading prompts on a time delay is useful because it allows time for the learner to independently initiate the response in the absence of a prompt, however, some learners will wait for the prompt in order to make a correct response that results in some type of reinforcement. What is graduated guidance and why is it difficult to implement properly? - ANS- Systematic fading out for prompts - typically starts with full manual guidance, uses only as much assistance as needed to produce correct response Requires skill on part of teacher Must be practiced and reinforced in order to be in teacher's repertoire Requires consistency Difficult to implement across multiple teachers Distinguish between graduated guidance and most-to-least fading of prompts. - ANS- Graduated guidance - Use only as much prompting as necessary, fading occurs within the session Most to least - Criterion to fade is determined by performance across trials and sessions and fading is done in prescribed hierarchy. Faster learners may learn faster with graduated guidance, as MTL sets a limit on how fast prompts will be faded. Is least-to-most fading of prompts an errorless procedure? Support your answer. Also, in what situation is this procedure more appropriate? - ANS- Least-to-most prompting is not an errorless procedure, because it allows the learner to make errors before the prompt is delivered. Least-to-most prompting is most appropriately used in situations in which the learner has the skills to complete the task and is unlikely to make errors. What does it mean to "fade in S-"? How was this done in the Schreibman study? - ANS- Responding to the S+ stimulus was taught, the S- stimuli were gradually increased until they were of equal intensity as the S+ What is stimulus shaping? Give an example. - ANS- Gradually changing the S+ and S- over trials, gradually change known letters into unknown letters over successive trials by changing their shape Etzel & LeBlanc (1979) note a few considerations for choosing between stimulus shaping and stimulus fading. List and briefly describe these. - ANS- Motivation, incompatible responses to learning, prerequisite skills, effective teacher instruction—detailed, relative to desired response, rate and timing of instruction Describe how the S- was introduced to different groups (independent variables) in the first series of S+ S- sessions in Exp. 1. (Terrace, 1965) - ANS- Early-progressive—introduced 30 s after key peck had been conditioned. S- was a dark key, and was only presented for 5 seconds, then time was gradually increased until the key was presented for 30 seconds. Then, the S- was made to be equally bright as the S+, but was only presented for 5 seconds and then time was gradually increased until the key was presented for 30 seconds. In the final phase, the S- was initially presented at its full intensity for 5 seconds, and then was faded up to the terminal goal of 3 minutes. Early-constant—introduced early, key was at full brightness for full amount of time Late-progressive—same as early-progressive, but introduced later Late constant—introduced later, key was at full brightness for full amount of time In general, what were the differences in how the S- was introduced in the progressive sessions in Exp II? (p. 7 and Table 3) (Terrace, 1965) - ANS- S- was introduced in two phases—first key was illuminated for .5 second and was initially presented at 0% brightness and then increased to full brightness, then key was illuminated at full brightness, and was faded from .5 seconds to 5 seconds. What does Terrace cite as the main finding in these experiments? - ANS- The main finding of the experiment was that an operant discrimination can be learned with few errors (responses to the S-) and that the number of errors that occur are a function of the way in which the S- is introduced (progressive vs. constant). Describe with examples the difference between simultaneous and successive discriminations as used by Saunders and Spradlin. - ANS- Simultaneous—discrimination between comparisons Successive—discrimination between samples What two aspects of their procedures do the authors state may have contributed to the transfer of stimulus control from errors (no reinforcer delivery) to sample control on responding in conditional discrimination trials? (Saunders and Spradlin, block training for arbitrary matching) - ANS- Gradually increasing the number of reversals, continue to require/maintenance of comparison discrimination Describe the independent variables (baseline, mixed-trials, blocked-trials sessions) and dependent variable. What was the experimental design? (Slocum et al., extension of Saunders & Spradlin with younger participant, and identity matching) - ANS- BSL: no prompting, no differential reinforcement Mixed-trials: differential reinforcement, error correction procedure Blocked trials: 10 trial-blocks, each block only had one trial type DV: % correct response Design—nonconcurrent multiple baseline What were the results? (Slocum et al., extension of Saunders & Spradlin with younger participant, and identity matching) - ANS- No relational stimulus control in BL or 1st Mixed-Trials sessions (always responded to one position with 2 stimulus sets), comparison discrimination was acquired in Blocked- Trials condition, Conditional discrimination was then also shown in Mixed-Trials condition Errorless learning - ANS- Set of teaching procedures designed to reduce incorrect responding during learning that involves selecting one stimulus over another 6 errorless techniques - ANS- Stimulus fading: Gradually increasing some dimension of the S- Stimulus shaping: Gradually changing the S+ and S- over trials Delayed prompting: Gradually delay onset of a prompt that identifies the S+ Response prevention: physically blocking any attempted response to the S-. Superimposition with fading: Superimposing prompts and using stimulus fading Superimposition with shaping: Superimposing prompts and using stimulus shaping Provide a practical teaching example of using each of the 6 errorless techniques. - ANS- Stimulus fading: Gradually increase the font of the S- until it is the same as the S+ Stimulus shaping: Gradually change known letters into unknown letters over successive trials by changing their shape Delayed prompting: Provide initially immediate indication of the S+ and then gradually delay indication Response prevention: physically blocking any attempted response to the S-. Superimposition with fading: Add pictures to accompany sight words cards and then gradually reduce the size until the pictures are no longer visible Superimposition with shaping: Responses to known pictures in the presence of unknown sight words. Change the pictures gradually into the pictures of the unknown words What did Ferguson and Rosales-Ruiz (2001) point out about the effects of small stimulus changes on loading behavior, and what did they recommend? - ANS- Small stimulus changes can produce some minor disruptions in the learning process, though these disruptions likely will disappear after continued training. The authors suggest that generalization probes should be conducted after the initial response is established to ensure that the learner will emit the response under a variety of conditions that they are likely to experience in the natural environment. What were the dependent and independent variables in the Ferguson and Rosales-Ruiz (2001) study? - ANS- Dependent variables: Correct responses (target training), successful approximations to load the trailer, inappropriate behavior, and the number of leads and prompts needed to get the horse to enter the trailer. Independent variables: Target and trailer training. Shaping - ANS- A process in which one systemically and differentially reinforces successive approximations to a terminal behavior Response chain - ANS- In a response chain, each step functions as a reinforcer for the previous step and an SD for the following step. What kind of prompting is recommended by MacDuff et al., and why? - ANS- Pictorial cues, because they prompt the completion of and transition between tasks, thus promoting independence and autonomy Describe how to use forward chaining. - ANS- Start with first step, teach to mastery, teach next step (but include previously mastered step), reinforce at training step Describe how to use backward chaining. - ANS- Prompt everything, teach last step, then teach second to last step, reinforce at end of chain, use when hardest stuff is at the end Describe how to use total-task chaining. - ANS- Best used with short chains, relatively easily learned, use graduated guidance, do not prompt every step, teaching every single step on every single trial Name and describe advantages of each of the following: forward chaining, backward chaining, and total-task training. - ANS- Forward chaining—conducted according to the natural order in which the responses within the chain occur in everyday situations Backward chaining—stimuli that are produced by responses at the end of the chain may be established as effective conditioned reinforcers, which maintain the response emitted earlier in the chain, doesn't involve extinction of previously reinforced steps Total task—steps of chain are taught in order of in which they occur in the natural environment Give an example of prompting and fading using LTM, MTL, and MTL with 2-s delay. Which of these are "errorless" procedures? - ANS- MTL (errorless)—most intrusive prompt provided immediately on untrained steps, then use less intrusive prompt MTL with 2-s delay (errorless)— most intrusive prompt provided immediately on untrained steps, then after 2 consecutive trials with prompt, wait 2-sec and see if child will initiate, if not, then prompt LTM (not errorless)—wait 2-sec to respond independently, then slightly more intrusive prompt introduced every 2-sec with no independent initiation/completion. What recommendations were made by Libby et al. (2008)? Name at least one limitation to these recommendations. - ANS- MTLD is best default response prompting technique when learning history is unknown MTL without time delay may produce slower acquisition even though it minimizes errors LTM may be preferable for student who already show rapid acquisition with this prompting technique The prompting technique should be tailored to the individual learner Progress should be monitored frequently to insure errors do not stall learning What is a risk with LTM prompting? - ANS- Errors may stall learning What is "general case analysis"? Give an example of how it could be applied? (Sprague and Horner, 1984, vending machines) - ANS- Providing a range of different examples during training that systematically samples the range of stimulus and response variations that new situations might demand. Sprague and Horner used it to teach purchasing from a vending machine across 10 different vending machines. What is recombinative generalization? Using your own example, describe in terms of matrix training. - ANS- Differential responding to novel combinations of stimulus components that have been included previously in other stimulus contexts. Matrix training—train student to put school supplies in different places using known school supplies, for example, pencil, paper, scissors, and unknown school supplies, for example, ruler, hole punch, binder clip, and known and unknown locations, for example, shelf, table, cabinet (known), and bookcase, 3-drawer bins, file cabinet. We read an article (Young et al., 1994) which suggested that there are limits to generalization of an imitative repertoire. In general, what were these limits? Provide one example. - ANS- Generalized imitation occurred only within the response type, and not across response type. If you are teaching imitation across multiple domains, for example, vocal imitation, play imitation, and skill imitation (such as hand washing), just because you teach imitation in one of the domains, it is unlikely based on the results of Young et al. (1994) that teaching vocal imitation would then generalize to skill or toy play imitation. Train and hope - ANS- train a response and hope that generalization occurs, assess by doing generalization probes Sequential Modification - ANS- if generalization probes show that generalization did not occur, then skill would be explicitly taught in a different setting Train Loosely - ANS- vary initial instruction or place where the teaching is done so that learner can respond under a variety of similar circumstances Use indiscriminable contingencies - ANS- using intermittent reinforcement, similar to what would occur in the natural environment so that responding does not come under the control of access to a specific reinforcer Introduce to natural and maintaining contingencies - ANS- technique attempts to shift stimulus control from the teacher to the natural environment because responses that contact reinforcement in the natural environment are more likely to generalize than those that do not Train to generalize - ANS- reinforcing generalized responses Mediate generalization - ANS- teaching responses that will be used in a variety of different settings Train sufficient exemplars - ANS- train a variety of responses that are equivalent Program common stimuli - ANS- ensure that there are elements in the teaching environment that will be present in the natural environment so that the child knows when the response is appropriate and will result in some type of reinforcement and when it may not What is stimulus overselectivity? - ANS- Responding comes under the control of a subset of the stimuli in the environment, and is dependent on stimuli that the teacher or experimenter consider to be irrelevant. Describe Schreibman and Lovaas (1973) procedures to assess overselectivity and the differences observed between children with autism and typically developing children in these assessments - ANS- A boy and girl doll were presented and the subject was told to point to either the boy or the girl doll (half of subjects were taught to respond to the boy, half were taught to respond to the girl). In testing conditions, there were six conditions, each of which altered one aspect of the boy and girl dolls. Neurotypical children took far fewer trials to master the initial boy/girl discrimination, and then allocated their responses based on the heads of the dolls. Autistic children, on the other hand, showed stimulus overselectivity in the presence of unimportant stimuli, such as clothing. What is a differential observing response (e.g., Walpole, Roscoe, and Dube, 2007); how does this differ from an observing response. Give an example of each. - ANS- Observing response—pointing response, point to sample Differential observing response—different for each stimulus, verifies discrimination of stimulus by responding differently based on the stimulus presented Describe an assessment procedure for evaluating joint attention responding - ANS- Environmental arrangement: room with bunch of weird stuff, say "look," or activate toy in some way when person looks at it Describe an assessment procedure for evaluation Initiating joint attention - ANS- Environmental arrangement: Treasure chest—reach in make some comment about it Describe the Klein et al. (2009) procedure for teaching responding to joint attention. - ANS- Gaze-shift sessions—established gaze shift Delayed cue—experimenter shifted his eye gaze to the toy, and if the child responded correctly within 2 seconds, the toy was activated for 5 seconds. If the child did not respond in 2 seconds, the toy was then activated for 5 seconds, and if the child then looked at the toy, it counted as a prompted response. Contingent activation—if the child responded within five seconds of the experimenter's eye gaze shift, the toy was activated for 5 seconds, but was not activated if the child did not look within 5 seconds Intermittent activation-- only run following gaze-shift evaluation sessions and contingent activation sessions in which responding was nearly 100% accurate, the toy was only activated for some of the trials following correct responses. Describe the Taylor and Hoch (2008) procedure for teaching initiating joint attention. - ANS- Examined three different components of joint attention including gaze shift between an item and the adult, vocally responding to bids for joint attention, and initiating bids for joint attention. Placed in baited room, adults made comments about items in the room, child looked or was prompted to look, prompted to make comment, taught to initiate bids for joint attention. What is observational learning? How is it different from incidental learning? - ANS- Observational learning refers to the acquisition of new responses as a result of observing the behavior of a model and incidental learning refers to the acquisition of new responses as a result of instructive feedback, additional information provided in the consequent statement Describe how Ledford et al. (2008) used both observational learning and incidental learning to teach reading. - ANS- Had groups of two students, each student had three targeted words that they were explicitly taught to him/her. Also watched the other child learn their words, probed to see if they learned the other child's words via observational learning. Also were taught pictures that corresponded to targeted words, which was learned through incidental teaching, and also probed to see if they learned the other child's pictures through observational learning. What is video modeling? - ANS- The viewing of a videotape of a peer or instructor successfully performing a chained task Describe the prerequisite skills for learning using video modeling. - ANS- Generalized imitation and readiness skills Describe how MacDonald et al. (2009) used video modeling to teach social interaction skills. - ANS- Taught reciprocal pretend play with an autistic child and a typically functioning child, both children were watched the video of the adults playing with a given play set. Each child was assigned a role and was seated in front of the character they were assigned to play with in both the video and the play set. They watched the video model twice, and then were seated in front of the play set and told to play with the set. Describe how you would use tactile prompting (Shabani et al.) to increase conversation initiations during meals. - ANS- Prompt with tactile prompt every minute that a conversation was not already in progress, then fade Describe the 5 steps in a photo activity schedule chain for each activity. (McDuff et al. PAS) - ANS- Point to the first item, gather materials, complete the task, put the materials away when done, and turn the page to the next task. Define the 4 verbal operants discussed in the Sigafoos et al chapter in Sturmey and Fitzer, 2007 - ANS- Mand—MO controls response, specifies reinforcer Tact—Label, SD is nonverbal Intraverbal—conversation, SD is a verbal stimulus; no point-to-point correspondence Echoic—repeat what you just heard. SD is auditory stimulus; point-to-point correspondence Describe a strategy you could use to increase opportunities for manding. (Sigafoos et al., in Sturmey and Fitzer, 2007) - ANS- Missing item strategy—told to complete a task, missing an item necessary for the task, learner mands for item Blocked response strategy—block learner's reach for an item, make them mand for it instead Wrong item format—give learner the wrong item, making him/her repeat initial request