The ULTIMATE Human Growth & Development (HGD) CLEP Study Guide 2024

Discontinuity or Stage Theories (types of theories) - -Development progresses through a series of stages -Each stage involves a specific task -Once task is achieved, individual moves to next stage -Changes are qualitative Continuity Theory (type of theory) - -Development/change is a matter of small steps -Change is NOT qualitative Universality theorists believe... - there are universals to development that occur across all cultures/time-periods Context-specific theorists believe... - context (cultural/social) influences development Cognitive-Developmental Theory - -Coined by Jean Piaget -Argues that cognitive abilities develop as one matures physiologically -It is a stage theory (4-stages) ~Sensorimotor stage (0-2yo) ~Preoperational stage (2-7yo) ~Concrete operations (7-12yo) ~Formal operations (12-15yo) Stage 1 of Cognitive-Developmental Theory? - -Sensorimotor (0-2yo) -Characterized by child learning the difference between themselves and their environment Stage 2 of Cognitive-Developmental Theory? - -Preoperational (2-7yo) -Characterized by: egocentrism, rigid thought, semi-logical reasoning, limited social cognition Stage 3 of Cognitive-Developmental Theory? - -Concrete Operations (7-12yo) -Characterized by: individual can consider other viewpoints, can perform transformations (reversibility, inversion, reciprocity, conservation), can group items into categories, make inferences about reality, inductive reasoning (generalizing), increased quantitative skills Stage 4 of Cognitive-Developmental Theory? - -Formal Operations (12-15yo) -Characterized by: higher ordered and critical thinking, logical, abstract, hypothetical capabilities, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, able to anticipate verbal cues, can perform an experiment (hypothesis, isolate variables, cause-and-effect) Jean Piaget and "Adaptation" (learning) - Individual encounters a new stimulus -> disequilibrium of individual -> accommodation (adjusting prior knowledge) -> assimilation (putting new and old information together) -> understanding that which is new... (learning...) Learning Theorists believe... - -that environment influences learning (nurture), and developmental change is the product of learning -ie. Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, Bandura Classical Conditioning - -Ivan Pavlov -"Learning takes place when reflexive behavior (salivating) comes under control of a novel stimulus (bell) in the environment" Unconditioned Stimulus? Unconditioned Response? Conditioned Stimulus? Conditioned Response? - -stimulus that automatically elicits a response (steak) -automatic response to UCS (salivating) -paired with UCS to generate response (steak & bell) -response that results from CS (salivating at bell) IRT Classical Conditioning... "Generalization"? "Discrimination"? "Extinction"? - -CR is elicited by stimuli similar to CS (alike to bell) -CR is only elicited by CS (bell) -Unlearning of the CR Classical Conditioning of Emotional Responses - -John Watson -Through experience we learn to associate new environmental stimuli with reflexive emotional responses -Conditioned fear into Little Albert using a loud noise (UCS) and a rate (CS); later, little albert would be fearful of just rat... Operant Conditioning - -B.F. Skinner -Learning is controlled by stimuli and our interaction with it, but our behavior is influenced by consequences (reward, punishment) -Positive reinforcement = rewarding behavior (candy) -Negative reinforcement = removing an undesirable consequence to promote good behavior (letting a kid out of timeout if they agree to not be disruptive) Social Cognitive Theory - -Albert Bandura -Changes in behavior don't result from just conditioning, but also from observing and modeling Psychodynamic Theorists believe what about personality? - -it is unconscious and shaped by early experiences Freud's Theory of Personality - -Sigmund Freud -Three main points: ~1) early experiences determine adult personality ~2) unconscious mental processes guide behavior ~3) conflict causes most behavior -Each adult personality consists of: ~id - pleasure-oriented, animalistic ~ego - deals with reality, executive branch ~superego - concerned with morality -Behavior is outcome of conflict between id, ego, and superego -Most of our personality is bottom of iceberg (unconscious) Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development Theory - -Development is centered around an erogenous zone that changes with age -Frustrations or under-/over-indulgence in any one zone can result in fixation, which affects personality/behavior -Stage 1 (0-1yo) - oral -Stage 2 (1-3yo) - anus -Stage 3 (3-6yo) - genitals -Stage 4 (6-12yo) - latency (none) -Stage 5 (puberty+) - genitals Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development - -Personality develops over the entire lifespan as a result of social-emotional tasks -In Childhood ~Trust vs mistrust (birth-1yo) ~Autonomy vs shame & doubt (1-3yo) ~Initiative vs guilt (3-6yo) ~Industry vs inferiority (6-11yo) -In Adolescence ~Identity vs role confusion -In Young Adulthood ~Intimacy vs isolation -In Adulthood ~Generativity vs stagnation -In Late Adulthood ~Ego integrity vs despair Socio-Cultural Theorists believe... - Environment (society & culture) influence child, and child influences environment