Human Anatomy and Physiology II EXAM 2024 LATEST EDITION GUARANTEED GRADE A+

What is in Whole Blood? contains -plasma 55% of whole blood -formed elements 45% of whole blood What are the Formed Elements of Blood? *also know as the Hematocrit -WBC (White Blood Cells) -RBC (Red Blood Cells) -Platelets Brainpower Read More What tissue type is Whole Blood and Why? Fluid Connective Tissue -Originates from Mesoderm -Contains non-living matrix (plasma) -Contains fibers (clotting factor) What are the functions of Blood? -Transportation (nutrients and gases) -Defensive Mechanism -Regulation and Composition of fluid -Temperature Regulation (blood is warmer than the body) -Regulation of fluid loss Where is Whole Blood production in an adult? in the red bone marrow epiphyses of long bones Where is Whole Blood production in a fetus in the spleen What are the physical characteristics of Whole blood? -Temperature is higher than core (unlike pH, there can be some room of change in temp) -pH 7.35-7.45 (vary little ability to vary, or death can occur) -Bright Red (oxygenated) -Dark Red (deoxygenated) -Viscosity (thicker than water) -Osmolarity -Metallic taste due to copper -production in the red bone marrow of the epiphyses of long bones What is Osmolarity? Concentration of solute particles in a solution. (leads to edema) What is Plasma? The non-living matrix that makes up of 55% of whole blood, that consists of (92%) of water, (7%) of plasma proteins, and (1%) of electrolytes. Resides in ICF and ECF (Intra/Extracellular fluid). Has a HIGH osmolarity. Contains three plasma proteins. -Albumins -Globulins -Fibrinogens What are the 3 plasma proteins? -Albumin (most abundant) -Globulin (gamma globulin-immune response) -Fibrinogen (form fibers) What is Albumin? (Plasma protein) -Most abundant es hormones ling hemoglobin (carries the hemme to the liver to be changed into bile, then digested either through the small intestines, blood stream, then the large intestines, and then is excreted into the feces or by the urinary tract.) regulate colloid osmotic pressure Are RBC's true cells? Why or Why not? No, red blood cells are not true cells because they do not contain a cell nucleus thus only have a lifespan of up to 120 days. Hematocrit -The Formed elements of Whole Blood -99% of Hematocrit is Erythrocytes (RBC) What are Erythrocytes and describe them? Red Blood Cells -Bi concave disc -produced in red bone marrow of epiphyses of long bones (hemopoietic tissue) -not true cells -120 day lifespan What is hemopoietic tissue? The area in which erythrocytes are produced in the red bone marrow of epiphyses of long bones. What is Hemopoiesis? The production of all the formed elements/hematocrit of whole blood What is Erythropoiesis? The production of ONLY erythrocytes/red blood cells What are the 3 hemoglobin molecules? -Oxyhemoglobin -Deoxyhemoglobin -Carbinohemoglobin What is Hemoglobin? A protein that consists of -4 polypeptide chains -4 Hemme pigment complexes -4 Iron molecules (where O2 binds to) that enables red blood cells to carry oxygen to all parts of the body. What is a Oxyhemoglobin molecule? A fully saturated hemoglobin molecule HbO2 What is a Deoxyhemoglobin molecule? A hemoglobin molecule with one less O2 than a oxyhemoglobin HHbO2 What is a Carbinohemoglobin molecule? Hemoglobin molecule with a carbon molecule instead of an oxygen molecule. HbCO2 What is Hemorrhagic Anemia? Acute or chronic loss of blood (ex: excessive menstrual flow, or an ulcer) What is Pernicious Anemia? A blood disorder that reflects a vitamin B12 deficiency caused by lack of intrinsic factor and characterized by abnormally large and immature red blood cells. What is Iron Deficiency Anemia? form of anemia (decrease in red blood cells) caused by inadequate supply of iron for synthesis of hemoglobin What is Aplastic Anemia? Aplastic anemia is where the bone marrow is not producing enough RBCs. And even WBC's and platelets. What is Hemolytic Anemia? when the rate of RBC destructions exceeds the rate of RBC erythropoiesis What is a Hemocytoblast? It is a stem cell that is capable of developing into any type of blood cell. What is are the two regulating factors of erythrocytes? vitamin b12 Erythropoietin What is erythropoietin? (EPO) A hormone produced by the kidneys that targets the production of erythrocytes in the red bone marrow. Where are mature erythrocytes broken down? In the spleen. What are the four blood types? Type A, B, AB, O and Rh(D) positive A- has "b" antigens in the plasma B- has "a" antigens in the plasm AB- O- What is Agglutination? the process of clotting in blood due to the incompatibility of two separate blood antigens mixing together which can lead to hemolysis. What is agglutinins? antibodies that cause clotting What is RH incompatibility? The hemolytic disease of the newborn/erythroblastosis fetalis, where the man is rh+ and the woman is rh- and they conceive a child who is rh+ the womans body may manufacture antibodies that attack future rh+ offspring, they must be given a injection called RhoGAM What are Leukocytes? White Blood Cells, that are true cells that contain a nucleus, and can undergo mitosis. 1. Diapedesis/emigration: the ability to leave the blood stream 2. Postive Chemotaxis: the ability to follow a chemical trail to an infection/pathogen 3. Phagocytosis 4. Amoeboid Movement -Granular Leukocytes (Neutrophil, Eosinophil, Basophil) -Agranular Leukocytes (Monocyte, Lymphocyte) What are neutrophils? Granular Leukocytes that are most abundant of the leukocytes, have a multi-lobed nucleus, the shortest lifespan. The Bacterial Slayer What are eosinophils? Granular Leukocytes that are generally have a bi-lobed nucleus, these increase during an allergic response (phagocytize antigen/antibody complex), are parasitic worm fighters, and reduce inflammation. What are basophils? Granular Leukocytes that are the smallest in quantity, generally have a horseshoe nucleus (difficult to see), and secrete two major secretions, histamine which is a vasodilator and a bronchoconstrictor, and heparin an anticoagulant. *Mast Cell found in the integument connective tissue works just like a Basophil. What are Monocytes? Agranular Leukocytes, that are the largest of the leukocytes, the nucleus is large and oval/kidney bean shaped, circulate throughout the body for about 24 hours, transform into macrophages. Differentiate into cells found in the integument and the liver 1. Langerhans found in the stratum spinosum of the epidermis 2. Kupffer cell found in the liver for detoxification What are Lymphocytes? An agranular leukocyte that is the only leukocyte that is used in specific defense. These leukocytes are round, and have a large nucleus that takes up nearly the entire cell, and travel the entire body through bloodstream to the tissues and back to the bloodstream, and they reside in the lymphatic tissue. Contain three cells types. 1. t-cells (active fighters) 2. b-cells (make antibodies) 3. NK cells (natural killers) What is Lymphopoiesis? the production of lymphocytes in either the lymph nodes or the lymphatic organs What is Leukopoiesis? the production of any five leukocytes/white blood cells in the red bone marrow What is Leukopenia? an abnormal low amount of leukocytes in the body, typically found in the elderly, people with AIDS, or undergoing chemo. A person with this, with a normal cold, can turn into pneumonia, and could potentially lead to death. What is Leukocytosis? an excessive amount of leukocytes in the body What is Leukemia? acute or chronic form of cancer on any of the five forms of leukocytes found in the body What are platelets? Also known as thrombocytes, are not true cells but just cell fragments from a megakaryocyte. These function in forming a temporary seal/plug before a true clot can be formed, and can last in the body for up to 7 days. What is Thrombocytopenia? an abnormally low amount of platelets in the body What is Thrombocytosis? an abnormally excessive amount of platelets in the body What are the secretions of platelets? -serotonin -calcium -ADP -Thromboxane A2 -Clotting factor -PDGF -PF III What is the function of serotonin in platelets? a secretion of platelets that increases vascular spasm/constriction What is the function of calcium in platelets? a secretion of platelets that is essential for clotting What is the function of ADP in platelets? a secrection of platelets that is a chemical signaler What is the function of Thromboxane A2 in platelets? a secretion of platelets that increases ADP, serotonin, and platelet aggregation (stick together) What is the function PDGF in platelets? a secretion of platelets that is know as the "Platelet Derived Growth Factor" that helps initiate healing, clot retraction by the fibrogen and clotting factor X acting like actin and myosin thus pulling plasma out soon the "plug" will soon fall off What is Thrombocytopoiesis? production of platelets in the red bone marrow, by the targeting factor of kidneys Thrombopoietin TPO What factor influences the production of platelets and where? Thrombopoietin TPO and it targets the kidneys What 3 phases consist of forming a temporary plug? 1. Vascular Phase (smooth muscle spasm) 2. Platelet Phase (positive feedback loop) 3. Coagulation Phase (true coagulation phase) What happens in the Vascular phase of forming a temporary plug/clot? First phase, and occurs immediately, smooth muscle endothelium and blood vessels contract/spasms by hormones such as serotonin released by platelets. What happens in the platelet phase of forming a temporary plug/clot? The second phase, and platelets change shape, aggregate and form a temporary plug, as well secrete ADP Thromboxane Serotonin CF PDGF CA. What are some limiting factors in forming a temporary plug/clot? Prostacyclin: inhibits platelets from aggregating WBC's: inhibit clotting Circulating plasma enzymes What happens in the Coagulation Phase in forming a temporary plug/clot? Last phase, and consists of Phase I (extrinsic and intrinsic pathways) and Phase II (clotting factor X), in which true coagulation happens, dependent on clotting factors or proagulants in the plasma What vitamin is needed for the liver to produce clotting factors? Vitamin K What is Thromboembolic obstruction of a blood vessel by a piece of thrombus. Thrombi: attached clot in an unbroken blood vessel Emboli: detached clot in an unbroken blood vessel What is Petechiae A bleeding disorder found mainly in children that consists of small, pinpoint intradermal hemorrhages. What is thrombocytopenia? abnormally low platelet count in the body What is hemophilia? A genetic disease where the person is enable to produce a clotting factor in blood. Internal and external bleeding takes longer to stop from the inability to form a clot. Describe the location of the Heart -In the thoracic cavity, in the inferior mediastinum -Angled at the sternum -Apex of the heart is angled left of sternum and at the inferior portion of the heart -Base of the heart is angled right of sternum and slightly rotated towards shoulder -Held in position by the fibrous pericardium What is Point of Maximal Intensity? PMI is the point where you will hear the heart's beat best right below the left nipple. What is pericarditis? Inflammation of the pericardium by the imbalance of abnormally low serous fluid. What is cardiac tampondae Injury to the heart or great vessels with too much fluid accumulating in the pericardial space by adding pressure to the areas surrounding the heart. What are the 3 distinct layers that make up the heart? -Epicardium: visceral serous most outer membrane -Myocardium: inner thickest layer, contains the contractile cells "the squeezer" -Endocardium: most inner lining, made of simple squamous What are the three major grooves of the heart? -Coronary Sulcus -Anterior Ventricular Sulcus -Posterior Ventricular Sulcus Describe cardiac muscle tissue? gap junctions: communication between cardiac cells sarcomeres: sliding filament theory calcium: two sources intra and extracellular Which side of the heart is oxygen rich is much larger? The left ventricle, due to the left ventricle pushing blood to the body and all of its organs and tissues "systemic circuit" rather than just to the lungs. What separates the left and right atria? The interatrial septum What separates the atria and valves/chambers? Interventricular septum which is much larger than the interatrial septum What valve divides the right atria from the right ventricle? The tricuspid valve (RIGHT AV VALVE) What valve divides the left atria from the left ventricle? The bicuspid valve (LEFT AV VALVE) Blood in the left ventricle going into the ascending aorta will pass through which valve? The aortic semilunar valve Blood leaving the right ventricle to go to the pulmonary trunk passes through which valve? The pulmonary semilunar valve What does the right atria of the heart do? it is the receiving chamber of the heart, the right atria receives oxygen POOR blood from the systemic circuit (blood from the body other than the lungs), contains three vessels 1. superior vena cava 2. inferior vena cava 3. coronary sinus What does the left atria of the heart do? It is the receiving chamber, the left atria receives oxygen RICH blood from the pulmonary circuit (blood from the lungs) through the pulmonary veins What is the fetal and adult remnant opening between the two atria? CONTINUED...