Psychology Final Exam Part 1 with 100% correct answers

Define psychology The scientific study of behavior and mental process Define the scientific method and explain how it is used in psychology. It's not what you study, its how you study it. 1.Observe 2.Hypothesize 3.Test  4.Conclusions 5.Evaluate Describe the major schools of thought and theoretical perspectives in psychology. 1.Biological psychology 2.Behaviorism 3.Psychoanalysis (Psychodynamic) 4.Humanistic psychology 5.Cognitive psychology 6.Evolutionary psychology 7.Sociocultural approach 1.Biological Approach - Neuroscience nervous system, structure, function, development, genetics, biochemistry 2.Behavioral Approach - Environmental Determinants of Observable Behavior l Reject Explanations Referencing Thought l (Notable Behaviorists Ivan Pavlov John Watson B.F. Skinner) 3.Psychodynamic Approach - Freud l Psychoanalysis l unconscious thought l conflict between biological drives and demands of society l early childhood family experiences 4. Humanistic Approach - Positive Human Qualities/Potential l Free Will (Notable Humanistic Theorists Carl Rogers Abraham Maslow ) 5. Cognitive Approach - An approach to psychology emphasizing the mental processes involved in knowing: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems. 6. Evolutionary Approach Explanations of Human Behavior: adaptation reproduction natural selection Notable Evolutionary Psychologist David Buss 7. Sociocultural Approach Social and Cultural Environments Differences between ethnic and cultural groups within and across countries Define and explain the differences between the various descriptive research methods. 1.Naturalistic observation 2.Laboratory observations 3.Case study 4.Survey 5.Correlation 6.Correlation coefficient 1. naturalistic observation The observation of behavior in a real-world setting. 2. laboratory—a controlled setting with many of the complex factors of the real world, including potential confounds, removed 3. Case study or case history An in-depth look at a single individual. 4. A survey presents a standard set of questions, or items, to obtain people's self-reported attitudes or beliefs about a particular topic. 5. Research that examines the relationships between variables, whose purpose is to examine whether and how two variables change together. 6. The degree of relationship between two variables is expressed as a numerical value called a correlational coefficient, which is most commonly represented by the letter r . Th e correlation coefficient is a statistic that tells us two things about the relationship between two variables—its strength and its direction. Define representative sample and explain why it is important. 1.Population 2.Sample 3.Representative sample 1.Population The entire group about which the investigator wants to draw conclusions. 2. Sample The subset of the population chosen by the investigator for study. 3.Representative Sample:a sample consists of the important subgroups (e.g., age, sex, education, income) in the same proportion as they are found in the population. A representative sample for the United States would reflect the U.S. population's age, socioeconomic status, ethnic origins, marital status, geographic location, religion, and so forth. To know your subjects. Describe the experimental method, state its advantages and disadvantages, and distinguish between independent and dependent variables. 1.Experimental method 2.Hypothesis 3.Random assignment 4.Independent variable 5.Dependent variable 6.Experimental group 7.Control group 1. Experiments are one of the few research designs that allow you to directly test why something happens, that is, to test for cause and effect 2. hypothesis An educated guess that derives logically from a theory; a prediction that can be tested. 3. random assignment Researchers' assignment of participants to groups by chance, to reduce the likelihood that an experiment's results will be due to preexisting differences between groups. endent variable A manipulated experimental factor; the variable that the experimenter changes to see what its effects are. dent variable The outcome; the factor that can change in an experiment in response to changes in the independent variable. imental group The participants in an experiment who receive the drug or other treatment under study—that is, those who are exposed to the change that the independent variable represents. 7. control group The participants in an experiment who are as much like the experimental group as possible and who are treated in every way like the experimental group except for a manipulated factor, the independent variable. Explain the rationale behind placebo-control experiments. 1.Experimenter bias 2.Placebo 3.Placebo effect 4.Double-blind procedure imenter bias Occurs when the experimenter's expectations influence the outcome of the research. 2. Placebo In a drug study, a harmless substance that has no physiological effect, given to participants in a control group so that they are treated identically to the experimental group except for the active agent. 3. placebo effect Occurs when participants' expectations, rather than the experimental treatment, produce an outcome. 4. double-blind experiment An experimental design in which neither the experimenter nor the participants are aware of which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group until the results are calculated. Outline the ethical standards that psychological researchers must follow. Informed consent: All participants must know what their participation will involve and what risks might develop. For example, participants in a study on dating should be told beforehand that a questionnaire might stimulate thoughts about issues in their relationships that they have not considered. Participants also should be informed that in some instances a discussion of the issues might improve their relationships but that in others it might worsen the relationships and even end them. Even after informed consent is given, participants must retain the right to withdraw from the study at any time and for any reason. Confidentiality: Researchers are responsible for keeping all of the data they gather on individuals completely confidential and, when possible, completely anonymous. Confidential data are not the same as anonymous. When data are confidential, it is possible to link a participant's identity to his or her data. Debriefing: After the study has been completed, the researchers should inform the participants of its purpose and the methods they used. In most cases, the experimenters also can inform participants in a general manner beforehand about the purpose of the research without leading the participants to behave in a way that they think that the experimenters are expecting. When preliminary information about the study is likely to aff ect the results, participants can at least be debriefed after the study's completion. Deception: Th is is an ethical issue that psychologists debate extensively. In some circumstances, telling the participants beforehand what the research study is about Conducting Ethical Research 49 substantially alters the participants' behavior and invalidates the researcher's data. Explain the difference between a psychologist and a psychiatrist. Psychiatrist prescribes medicine Identify the basic components of the neuron. 1.Neuron 2.Dendrites 3.Cell body 4.Axon 1. neurons One of two types of cells in the nervous system; neurons are the nerve cells that handle the information-processing function. 2. dendrites Treelike fibers projecting from a neuron, which receive information and orient it toward the neuron's cell body. 3. cell body The part of the neuron that contains the nucleus, which directs the manufacture of substances that the neuron needs for growth and maintenance. The part of the neuron that carries information away from the cell body toward other cells. Identify the basic components of the synapse. 1.Synapse 2.Synaptic gap synapses - Tiny spaces between neurons; Synaptic gaps -the gaps between neurons are referred to as synaptic gaps. Define the action potential and explain the processes that occur when a neuron is activated. 1. Resting potential 2. Action potential ng potential In an inactive neuron, the voltage between the inside and outside of the axon wall. 2. action potential The brief wave of positive electrical charge that sweeps down the axon. Identify the major neurotransmitters and explain how neurotransmitters affect behavior 1.Neurotransmitters 2. Acetylcholine 3. Norepinephrine 4. Dopamine 5. Serotonin 6. Endorphins 1. neurotransmitters Chemical substances that are stored in very tiny sacs within the terminal buttons and involved in transmitting information across a synaptic gap to the next neuron. 2. Acetylcholine -muscle actions, learning, memory -black widow venom ↑ Ach levels -Botox (botulin) ↓ Ach levels -Alzheimer's disease: ↓ Ach levels 3. Norepinephrine -stress and mania: ↑ norepinephrine levels -depression: ↓ norepinephrine levels -regulates sleep states in conjunction with Ach 4. Dopamine -voluntary movement -reward anticipation -stimulant drugs: activate dopamine receptors -parkinson's disease: ↓ dopamine levels -schizophrenia: ↑ dopamine levels 5. Serotonin -regulation of sleep, mood, attention, learning -depression: ↓ serotonin levels -Prozac: ↑ serotonin levels 6. Endorphins -natural opiates -mediate feelings of pleasure and pain Identify the medulla, pons and cerebellum, and describe their functions 1. Brain stem 2. Medulla 3. Pons 4. Cerebellum 1.Brainstem-consists of: -la - control breathing, regulate reflexes - - sleep and arousal 4.Cerebellum motor coordination List the processes regulated by the hypothalamus. Hypothalamus -eating, drinking, sexual behaviors -regulate body's internal state -emotion, stress, reward Describe the limbic system, and list the responses and behaviors affected by it. 1.Limbic System 2. Amygdala 3. Hippocampus Limbic System memory and emotion -amygdala discrimination of objects needed for survival emotional awareness and expression -hippocampus Formation and recall of memories Describe the components of the cerebrum and their functions. 1.Cerebrum 2.Cerebral cortex 3.Corpus callosum 4.Cerebral hemispheres 1.Cerebrum: The large, rounded structure of the brain occupying most of the cranial cavity, divided into two cerebral hemispheres that are joined at the bottom by the corpus callosum. It controls and integrates motor, sensory, and higher mental functions, such as thought, reason, emotion, and memory. 2. Cerebral cortex Extensive, wrinkled outer layer of the forebrain; governs higher brain functions, such as thinking, learning, and consciousness 3. Corpus callosum The large bundle of axons that connects the brain's two hemispheres, responsible for relaying information between the two sides 4. left hemisphere - verbal processing, speech, grammar Broca's Area Wernicke's Area right hemisphere - spatial perception, visual recognition, emotion Explain the functions of the frontal lobes. 1.Frontal lobes 2.Motor cortex 3.Association areas 4.Broca's area 5.Broca's aphasia frontal lobes The portion of the cerebral cortex behind the forehead, involved in personality, intelligence, and the control of voluntary muscles. 2. motor cortex A region in the cerebral cortex that processes information about voluntary movement, located just behind the frontal lobes. 3. association cortex Sometimes called association areas , the region of the cerebral cortex that is the site of the highest intellectual functions, such as thinking and problem solving 4. Broca's area is located in the brain's left hemisphere and is involved in the control of speech. Individuals with damage to Broca's area have problems saying words correctly. 5. Broca's Aphasia a language disorder that involves the inability to produce language Describe various methods for studying the brain and its functions. 1. Electroencephalograph (EEG) 2. Computerized axial tomography (CAT or CT scan) 3. Positron emission tomography (PET scan) 4. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 5. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) 1. An electroencephalograph (EEG) records the brain's electrical activity. Electrodes placed on the scalp detect brain-wave activity. - This device can assess brain damage, epilepsy, and other problems 2. An improved imaging technique called computerized axial tomography (CAT scan or CT scan) produces a three-dimensional image obtained from X rays of the head that are assembled into a composite image by a computer. Th e CT scan provides valuable information about the location and extent of damage involving stroke, language disorder, or loss of memory 3. positron-emission tomography (PET scan), is based on metabolic changes in the brain related to activity. PET measures the amount of glucose in various areas of the brain and sends this information to a computer for analysis. 4. magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), involves creating a magnetic fi eld around a person's body and using radio waves to construct images of the person's tissues and biochemical activities. MRI scans can reveal considerable information about brain structure, they cannot portray brain function. 5. functional magnetic resonance imaging, or fMRI, allows scientists literally to see what is happening in the brain while it is working ( Figure 3.9 ). Th e use of fMRI in psychological studies has increased dramatically in the twenty-first century fMRI rests on the idea that mental activity is associated with changes in the brain. While PET relies on the use of glucose as fuel for thinking, fMRI exploits changes in blood oxygen that occur in association with brain activity. Explain the difference between the central and the peripheral nervous systems. 1. Central (CNS) -brain and spinal cord ( More than 99 percent of all nerve cells in our body are located in the CNS) 2. Peripheral Peripheral (PNS) -Somatic NS sensory nerves motor nerves -Autonomic NS sympathetic NS parasympathetic NS (The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the network of nerves that connects the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body. Th e functions of the peripheral nervous system are to bring information to and from the brain and spinal cord and to carry out the commands of the CNS to execute various muscular and glandular activities.) Explain plasticity. plasticity The brain's special capacity for change. What is the endocrine system? Describe the ways that the pituitary gland and adrenal glands affect behavior. 1. Endocrine system 2. Hormones 3. Pituitary gland 4. Adrenal glands 1. endocrine system The body system consisting of a set of glands that regulate the activities of certain organs by releasing their chemical products into the bloodstream. 2. hormones Chemical messengers that are produced by the endocrine glands and carried by the bloodstream to all parts of the body 3. pituitary gland A pea-sized gland just beneath the hypothalamus that controls growth and regulates other glands 4. adrenal glands Glands at the top of each kidney that are responsible for regulating moods, energy level, and the ability to cope with stress. Define and identify examples of learning. learning: a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience. Explain the process through which classical conditioning modifies an organism's responses to stimuli. (1/3) 1.Classical conditioning 2.Unconditioned stimulus 3.Unconditioned response 4.Neutral stimulus 1. In classical conditioning, organisms learn the association between two stimuli. 2. unconditioned stimulus (UCS) A stimulus that produces a response without prior learning 3. unconditioned response (UCR) An unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by the unconditioned stimulus. 4. A neutral stimulus is a stimulus which initially produces no specific response other than focusing attention. In classical conditioning, when used together with an unconditioned stimulus, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus. Explain the process through which classical conditioning modifies an organism's responses to stimuli. (2/3) 1. Conditioned stimulus 2. Conditioned response 3. Stimulus generalization 4. Stimulus discrimination 1. In classical conditioning, a conditioned stimulus (CS) is a previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus. 2. The conditioned response (CR) is the learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after CS-UCS pairing 3. The tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response. 4. The process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others.