Intro to CS Research 1
What are my responsibilities as a researcher? 10
Summarizing Research Results: Intro to Statistics 22
Creating a graph: 24
Probability 26
Correlations 27
SECOND BLOCK: 31
Internal and External Validity 31
Sampling 32
Surveys 34
Experiments 37
Content Analyses 40
Sample to Population 42
Inferential Statistics 45
Chi-Square + Other Nonparametric Tests 56
Literature Reviews 60
Questionable Research Practices & Research integrity 61
Qualitative Research 63
Methods of Communication Research and Statistics
Chapters 1 & 2: Intro to CS Research
Scientific research is a systematic process of gathering theoretical knowledge through
observation
● Observation = empiricism
○ Empirical means it’s based on the world around us (social reality?)
● Systematic and cumulative;
○ builds on previous research
, ○ Searches for patterns and associations
● Empirical cycle:
○
○ 1) Observation: noticeable relations and questions, where a preliminary research
question starts to form
○ 2) Induction: from specific to general; generate or think of theories that can
explain the relations
■ Linked to empirical-interpretative approach?
○ 3) Deduction: from general to specific: formulating specific expectations /
hypotheses that can be tested
■ Deductive nomological (DN) model:
● Poses scientific explanation as a deductive explanation (e.g.
comprised of premises)
○ E.g.: a = b, b=c, therefore a = c
● Reasoning from a theory to observations that will test your theory
■ Linked to empirical-analytical approach?
○ 4) Testing: testing the variables from the hypotheses
■ analyze the data
■ Operationalize variables?
○ 5) Evaluation: evaluate the validity of results
■ Hypothesis is either supported, adjusted, or rejected
● Hypothesis: scientific, systematic claim
○ Testable
○ Objective
○ Falsifiable
○ informative
● Theoretical knowledge is based on supported hypotheses
● The scientific method must follow 6 principles:
○ 1) Empirically testable
○ 2) Replicable
○ 3) Objective
○ 4) Transparent
○ 5) Falsifiable
, ■ Possible to refute
■ Example of non falsifiable hypothesis: bigfoot exists
● Because even if someone says they haven’t seen him, it could be
because he’s hiding?
○ 6) Logically consistent
○ How to remember:
■ every ratchet ogre tries for love
● Action research
○ Research to better society/make a positive impact
Two approaches to scientific research:
● Approaches to scientific research are based on basic assumptions/beliefs in research:
○ EMPIRICAL-ANALYTICAL approach: focuses on prediction and
generalization
■ Belief: human communication is objectively measurable and can be
summarized in rules
■ Observe, measure from researcher’s perspective
■ Explains
■ Rules out alternative explanations
■ Researchers seek to find rules and patterns in communication
● Nomothetic approach
■ Believes human communication is measurable
■ Usually a quantitative research strategy - measurement, numbers, testing
theory
● Experiment, survey, content analysis
■ Due to testing theory, when falsifying a hypothesis, seeks to refute or
support it
■ Occurs in deduction????
○ EMPIRICAL-INTERPRETIVE approach: understands subjectivity and the
‘uniqueness’ of individuals, doesn’t really like to generalize like with
empirical-analytical
■ Belief: human communication is subjective and individualistic
■ Idiographic approach
● “style within social research that focuses on specific elements,
individuals, events, entities and situations, documents and works of
culture or of art and concentrates on what is particular to these”
■ Seek to understand rather than predict
● E.g. by interviewing people
, ■ Usually qualitative - no measurement, based on words, generates theory
■ Due to generation of theory, falsification in this approach is mainly based
on verifying a hypothesis
■ Mainly occurs during induction
● Ontology vs epistemology:
○ Ontology: focuses on questioning what is real
■ E.g. Does an attitude really exist? What things really exist?
● Objectivism vs constructionism
○ Objectivism: underlying reality (e.g. attitude) has the
characteristics of an object, and is objective
○ Constructionism: social entities such as an attitude are
considered social constructions, not objects
○ Epistemology: focuses on how communication should be understood:
■ What is knowledge?
● Positivism vs interpretivism
○ positivism: using the methods of natural sciences for the
study of social sciences
■ Knowledge is what can be perceived by the senses,
theory should lead to hypotheses, knowledge is
arrived at through the gathering of facts that provide
the basis for rules and laws
○ Interpretivism: researchers should focus on subjective
meanings
● The relationship between theory and observations:
○ INDUCTION
■ From observations, one finds/makes theories that may explain the
observations
○ DEDUCTION
What are my responsibilities as a researcher? 10
Summarizing Research Results: Intro to Statistics 22
Creating a graph: 24
Probability 26
Correlations 27
SECOND BLOCK: 31
Internal and External Validity 31
Sampling 32
Surveys 34
Experiments 37
Content Analyses 40
Sample to Population 42
Inferential Statistics 45
Chi-Square + Other Nonparametric Tests 56
Literature Reviews 60
Questionable Research Practices & Research integrity 61
Qualitative Research 63
Methods of Communication Research and Statistics
Chapters 1 & 2: Intro to CS Research
Scientific research is a systematic process of gathering theoretical knowledge through
observation
● Observation = empiricism
○ Empirical means it’s based on the world around us (social reality?)
● Systematic and cumulative;
○ builds on previous research
, ○ Searches for patterns and associations
● Empirical cycle:
○
○ 1) Observation: noticeable relations and questions, where a preliminary research
question starts to form
○ 2) Induction: from specific to general; generate or think of theories that can
explain the relations
■ Linked to empirical-interpretative approach?
○ 3) Deduction: from general to specific: formulating specific expectations /
hypotheses that can be tested
■ Deductive nomological (DN) model:
● Poses scientific explanation as a deductive explanation (e.g.
comprised of premises)
○ E.g.: a = b, b=c, therefore a = c
● Reasoning from a theory to observations that will test your theory
■ Linked to empirical-analytical approach?
○ 4) Testing: testing the variables from the hypotheses
■ analyze the data
■ Operationalize variables?
○ 5) Evaluation: evaluate the validity of results
■ Hypothesis is either supported, adjusted, or rejected
● Hypothesis: scientific, systematic claim
○ Testable
○ Objective
○ Falsifiable
○ informative
● Theoretical knowledge is based on supported hypotheses
● The scientific method must follow 6 principles:
○ 1) Empirically testable
○ 2) Replicable
○ 3) Objective
○ 4) Transparent
○ 5) Falsifiable
, ■ Possible to refute
■ Example of non falsifiable hypothesis: bigfoot exists
● Because even if someone says they haven’t seen him, it could be
because he’s hiding?
○ 6) Logically consistent
○ How to remember:
■ every ratchet ogre tries for love
● Action research
○ Research to better society/make a positive impact
Two approaches to scientific research:
● Approaches to scientific research are based on basic assumptions/beliefs in research:
○ EMPIRICAL-ANALYTICAL approach: focuses on prediction and
generalization
■ Belief: human communication is objectively measurable and can be
summarized in rules
■ Observe, measure from researcher’s perspective
■ Explains
■ Rules out alternative explanations
■ Researchers seek to find rules and patterns in communication
● Nomothetic approach
■ Believes human communication is measurable
■ Usually a quantitative research strategy - measurement, numbers, testing
theory
● Experiment, survey, content analysis
■ Due to testing theory, when falsifying a hypothesis, seeks to refute or
support it
■ Occurs in deduction????
○ EMPIRICAL-INTERPRETIVE approach: understands subjectivity and the
‘uniqueness’ of individuals, doesn’t really like to generalize like with
empirical-analytical
■ Belief: human communication is subjective and individualistic
■ Idiographic approach
● “style within social research that focuses on specific elements,
individuals, events, entities and situations, documents and works of
culture or of art and concentrates on what is particular to these”
■ Seek to understand rather than predict
● E.g. by interviewing people
, ■ Usually qualitative - no measurement, based on words, generates theory
■ Due to generation of theory, falsification in this approach is mainly based
on verifying a hypothesis
■ Mainly occurs during induction
● Ontology vs epistemology:
○ Ontology: focuses on questioning what is real
■ E.g. Does an attitude really exist? What things really exist?
● Objectivism vs constructionism
○ Objectivism: underlying reality (e.g. attitude) has the
characteristics of an object, and is objective
○ Constructionism: social entities such as an attitude are
considered social constructions, not objects
○ Epistemology: focuses on how communication should be understood:
■ What is knowledge?
● Positivism vs interpretivism
○ positivism: using the methods of natural sciences for the
study of social sciences
■ Knowledge is what can be perceived by the senses,
theory should lead to hypotheses, knowledge is
arrived at through the gathering of facts that provide
the basis for rules and laws
○ Interpretivism: researchers should focus on subjective
meanings
● The relationship between theory and observations:
○ INDUCTION
■ From observations, one finds/makes theories that may explain the
observations
○ DEDUCTION
