RESEARCH METHODS AQA A LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY GLOSSARY ALREADY GRADED A

RESEARCH METHODS AQA A LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY GLOSSARY ALREADY GRADED A Experimental Method a research method using random allocation of participants and the manipulation of variables to determine cause and effect Variable A variable is anything that can vary, i.e. changed or be changed, such as memory, attention, time taken to perform a task, etc. Experimental Method a research method using random allocation of participants and the manipulation of variables to determine cause and effect Variable A variable is anything that can vary, i.e. changed or be changed, such as memory, attention, time taken to perform a task, etc. Independent Variable the factor manipulated by researchers in an investigation Dependent Variable the factor measured by researchers in an investigation Operationalism the process of defining variables into measurable factors Investigator effects a researcher effect where researcher features influence participants results Double blind technique A double-blind study is one in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving a particular treatment. This procedure is utilized to prevent bias in research results. Double-blind studies are particularly useful for preventing bias due to demand characteristics or the placebo effect. Extraneous variables variables other than the IV that might affect the DV Confounding Variables uncontrolled extraneous variables that negatively affect results Participant variables These extraneous variables are related to individual characteristics of each participant that may impact how he or she responds. These factors can include background differences, mood, anxiety, intelligence, awareness and other characteristics that are unique to each person Situational variable features of an environment that affect the degree to which individuals yield to group pressure Demand characteristics features of a piece of research which allow the participants to work out its aim and/or hypotheses. Participant may then change their behaviour and so frustrate the aim of the research. Single blind technique The Single-Blind research method is a specific research procedure in which the researchers (and those involved in the study) do not tell the participants if they are being given a test treatment or a control treatment. Laboratory experiment experiment conducted in a controlled environment allowing the establishment of causality Field experiment experiment conducted in a naturalistic environment where the researchers manipulate the independent variable Natural/Quasi Experiment experiment conducted in a naturalistic environment with a naturally occurring independent variable Participant observation a technique of field research, used in anthropology and sociology, by which an investigator (participant observer) studies the life of a group by sharing in its activities. Overt Overt behaviors are those which are directly observable, such as talking, running, scratching or blinking. Observer Bias Observer bias (also called experimenter bias or research bias) is the tendency to see what we expect to see, or what we want to see. When a researcher studies a certain group, they usually come to an experiment with prior knowledge and subjective feelings about the group being studied. Behavioural categories dividing target behaviours into subsets of behaviours through use of coding systems Time sampling Time sampling is a sampling method that involves the acquisition of representative samples by observing subjects at different time intervals. These time intervals can be chosen randomly or systematically. Non-participant observations A research technique whereby the researcher watches the subjects of his or her study, with their knowledge, but without taking an active part in the situation under scrutiny Covert COVERT refers to performance that cannot be observed directly, performance that is mental, invisible, cognitive, or internal. Naturalistic observation surveillance and recordings of naturally occurring events Event sampling Event sampling is used to sample behaviour in observational research. It is where an observer records the number of times a certain behaviour occurs. Inter-rater reliability nter-rater reliability. The test-retest method assesses the external consistency of a test. This refers to the degree to which different raters give consistent estimates of the same behavior. Inter-rater reliability can be used for interviews. Correlation Correlation means association - more precisely it is a measure of the extent to which two variables are related Scattergram scatterplot is a visual representation of the relationships or associations between two numerical variables, which are represented as points (or dots), each plotted at a horizontal axis (y-axis) and vertical axis (y-axis). Positive correlation . If an increase in one variable tends to be associated with an increase in the other then this is known as a positive correlation. Correlation co-efficient The statistic is called a correlation coefficient. A correlation coefficient can be calculated when there are two (or more) sets of scores for the same individuals or matched groups. A correlation coefficient describes direction (positive or negative) and degree (strength) of relationship between two variables. Co-variables correlations are described in terms of co-variables. Negative correlation When two variables have a negative correlation, they have an inverse relationship. This means that as one variable increases, the other decreases, and vice versa. Questionnaires A Questionnaire is a research instrument composed of a series of questions designed to gather information about a certain topic. Open questions This is the opposite of an open-ended question in which an individual can say whatever they want as an answer. Interviews a meeting of people face to face, especially for consultation. Unstructured interview An unstructured interview is an interview in which there is no specific set of predetermined questions, although the interviewer usually has certain topics in mind that they wish to cover during the interview. Unstructured interviews flow like an everyday conversation and tend to be more informal and open Quantitative data Quantitative data is information about quantities; that is, information that can be measured and written down with numbers. Closed questions Closed questions have a particular set of answers for individuals to choose from. Social desirability social desirability bias is a type of response bias that is the tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favourably by others. It can take the form of over-reporting "good behaviour" or under-reporting "bad", or undesirable behaviour. Structured interview The Structured Interview is a data-gathering methodology that involves a standard set of questions asked in the same manner and order. For example, when doing research, you may interview participants instead of asking them to fill out a questionnaire. Semi structured interview semi-structured interview is a qualitative method of inquiry that combines a pre-determined set of open questions (questions that prompt discussion) with the opportunity for the interviewer to explore particular themes or responses further. Qualitative data Qualitative data is information about qualities; information that can't actually be measured. Aims An aim identifies the purpose of the investigation. It is a straightforward expression of what the researcher is trying to find out from conducting an investigation. The aim typically involves the word "investigate" or "investigation". Hypothesis A hypothesis is a speculative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. It is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in a study. Null hypothesis A null hypothesis is a hypothesis that says there is no statistical significance between the two variables. It is usually the hypothesis a researcher or experimenter will try to disprove or discredit. Experimental/ alternative hypothesis An alternative hypothesis is one that states there is a statistically significant relationship between two Directional or one tailed hypothesis This is also known as a one-tailed hypothesis and involves researchers predicting the direction or effect one variable (the independent variable normally) will have on another (the dependent variable) be it positive or negative. ... The direction they are predicting here is that boys will perform "better". Non-directional or two tailed hypotheses Two-tailed test, also known as the non-directional hypothesis, defined as the standard test of significance to determine if there is a relationship between variables in either direction. Target population The target population is the total group of individuals from which the sample might be drawn. Representative sample A representative sample is drawn from a population of interest and has demographics and characteristics that match those of the population in as many ways as possible. Opportunity sample It consists of taking the sample from people who are available at the time the study is carried out and fit the criteria you're are looking for. Pilot study Pilot studies are small, trial versions of proposed studies to test their effectiveness and make improvements. They are helpful in identifying potential issues early, which can then be rectified before committing to the length and expense of a full investigation. Sample Sampling is the process of selecting a representative group from the population under study. Self-selected/volunteer sample A voluntary sample is made up of people who self-select into the survey. Often, these folks have a strong interest in the main topic of the survey Systematic sampling Systematic sampling is a type of probability sampling method in which sample members from a larger population are selected according to a random starting point and a fixed periodic interval. Stratified sampling A stratified random sample is a random sample in which members of the population are first divided into strata, then are randomly selected to be a part of the sample. Independent groups An independent measures design is a research method in which multiple experimental groups are used and participants are only in one group. Each participant is only in one condition of the independent variable during the experiment. Repeated measures This type of design is also known as within groups. The same participants take part in each condition of the independent variable. This means that each condition of the experiment includes the same group of participants. Matched pairs A matched pairs design is when you have different participants in two different conditions, but you match them according to certain variables, such as age, personality, gender, IQ etc. Order effects The order in which the experiment takes place effecting the outcome. Fatigue and boredom perform worse which is a negative order effect. Practise and learning mean they perform better which is a positive order effect Counterbalancing counterbalancing combats order effects where half participants do Cond A followed by Cond B and then the other half do Cond B followed by Cond A Randomisation Demand characteristics Features of a piece of research which allows participants do Cond B and then the other half do Cond B followed by Cond A Standardisation Standardisation means keeping everything the same for all participants so that the investigation is fair. For example, consider the instructions that are given to the participants. In order to ensure that all of the participants get precisely the same instructions, the experimenter should write them down. Ethical guidelines (BPS) Ethics refers to the correct rules of conduct necessary when carrying out research. We have a moral responsibility to protect research participants from harm. However important the issue under investigation psychologists need to remember that they have a duty to respect the rights and dignity of research participants. Informed consent Informed consent is a legal and ethical term defined as the consent by a client to a proposed mental health or psychotherapeutic procedure, or for participation in a research project or clinical study. Confidentiality Confidentiality is a part of the ethical guidelines of psychologists and means that information between a patient and a therapist cannot be shared with anyone. Debriefing Debriefing is the procedure that is conducted in psychological research with human subjects after an experiment or study has been concluded. It involves a structured or semi structured interview between the researcher and the subjects whereby all elements of the study are discussed in detail. Deception Deception occurs as the result of investigators providing false or incomplete information to participants for the purpose of misleading research subjects. Right to withdraw The right to withdraw is a concept in clinical research ethics that a study participant in a clinical trial has a right to end participation in that trial at will. Protection of participants We have a moral responsibility to protect research participants from harm. Observational research Observational research (or field research) is a type of correlational (i.e., non-experimental) research in which a researcher observes ongoing behaviour. It is simply studying behaviours that occur naturally in natural contexts, unlike the artificial environment of a controlled laboratory setting. Internal reliability Internal reliability assesses the consistency of results across items within a test. External reliability External reliability refers to the extent to which a measure varies from one use to another. Split half method The split-half method assesses the internal consistency of a test, such as psychometric tests and questionnaires. There, it measures the extent to which all parts of the test contribute equally to what is being measured. This is done by comparing the results of one half of a test with the results from the other half. Test retest method Test-retest reliability is a measure of reliability obtained by administering the same test twice over a period of time to a group of individuals. Inter observer reliability Used to assess the degree to which different raters/observers give consistent estimates of the same phenomenon. Internal validity Internal validity refers to how well an experiment is done, especially whether it avoids confounding (more than one possible independent variable [cause] acting at the same time). External validity it is the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people.