Test bank for Human Learning 7th Edition Ormrod

Test bank for Human Learning 7th Edition Ormrod CHAPTER 1 PERSPECTIVES ON LEARNING Multiple Choice Questions Human beings undoubtedly learn more during the course of a lifetime than any other species on earth. The major result of this capacity to learn is that: New instincts begin to emerge. Human thought becomes less logical with each generation. Humans can benefit from their experiences. Humans are the only species whose behavior cannot be analyzed in terms of stimuli and responses. Three of the following are examples of learning. Which one is not? Abigail cries when she steps on a sharp pebble. After many hours of heated debate, Brian begins to advocate political practices he has previously opposed. Cara suddenly recognizes how the division fact ―24 ’ 4 = 6‖ is related to the multiplication fact ―6 x 4 = 24.‖ David has been running away from German shepherds ever since he was bitten by a German shepherd two years ago. Reynelda has trouble tracing a complex shape with a pencil when she is in kindergarten, but she can do it quite well by the time she is in second grade. Is this an instance of learning? Yes, because her behavior has changed. No, because the circumstances are too dissimilar. Maybe, although the change may simply be due to physiological maturation. Maybe, but only if she is being reinforced for tracing accurately. Three of the following illustrate various ways that learning might be reflected in a person‘s behavior. Which one of the following changes does not necessarily reflect learning? Although it‘s a school night, Dean plays video games until well past his usual bedtime. As he becomes more tired, he finds it increasingly difficult to concentrate on what he‘s doing. Even as a young child, Jerry could tell you that his grandparents immigrated to the United States from Ireland. But after a conversation with his grandmother, he can now describe the circumstances of the family‘s immigration in considerable detail. Day after day, Martin practices his basketball skills (shooting, dribbling, etc.) on a basketball court at a local park. With each practice session, his movements become faster and smoother. Lewis occasionally asks for help when he has difficulty with his classwork, but most of the time he just struggles quietly on his own. After his teacher assures him that asking for help is not a sign of weakness or inability, he begins asking for help much more frequently. research examines learning in tightly controlled settings and research examines learning in real-world settings. Applied; Basic Basic; Qualitative Qualitative; Applied Basic; Applied A principle of learning can best be characterized as: A description of the results of a particular research study A statement that describes how a particular factor affects learning The measurement of how much learning has occurred in a particular situation An explanation of the underlying processes through which learning occurs A theory of learning can best be characterized as: A description of the results of a particular research study A statement that describes how a particular factor affects learning The measurement of how much learning has occurred in a particular situation An explanation of the underlying processes through which learning occurs Three of the following are principles of learning. Which one is a theory of learning rather than a principle? A behavior that is followed by punishment decreases in frequency. People learn by making mental associations between new information and their existing knowledge. A response that is rewarded every time it occurs increases more rapidly than a response that is only occasionally rewarded. Students tend to remember more of a lecture if they take notes on the lecture‘s content. Which one of the following common sayings best reflects the concept of introspection? ―Where there‘s a will, there‘s a way.‖ ―Nothing ventured, nothing gained.‖ ―A penny for your thoughts.‖ ―Old habits die hard.‖ Which one of the following common sayings best reflects the basic premise underlying social learning theory? ―Monkey see, monkey do.‖ ―Spare the rod and spoil the child.‖ ―A friend in need is a friend indeed.‖ ―A rolling stone gathers no moss.‖ Which one of the following statements provides the most credible explanation for the fact that human beings seem to surpass all other animal species in their thinking and learning capacities? Only human beings have the capability to make tools. Humans communicate regularly with one another and, in doing so, pass along what they‘ve learned to future generations. Human beings have a huge repertoire of instinctual behaviors from which they can draw when they encounter new experiences. Human brains are smaller than those of other intelligent species (e.g., elephants, dolphins) and therefore can transmit messages more quickly and efficiently. Behaviorists and cognitivists tend to focus on different aspects of learning. Which one of the following statements best describes this difference? Behaviorism focuses on temporary changes; cognitivism focuses on relatively permanent changes. Behaviorism focuses on relatively permanent changes; cognitivism focuses on temporary changes. Behaviorism focuses on internal mental changes; cognitivism focuses on external behavioral changes. Behaviorism focuses on external behavioral changes; cognitivism focuses on internal mental changes. Theories are advantageous in several ways. Three of the following describe advantages of learning theories. Which one does not? Theories enable objective, unbiased reporting of research findings. Theories help to condense large bodies of information. Theories help practitioners design interventions that facilitate learning. Theories provide an impetus for new research. Which one of the following statements is most accurate statement regarding theories of learning? They have been proven to be true. They will eventually be replaced by physiological explanations of how learning occurs. They are often modified as new data emerge. Any theory can be used to explain virtually every instance of learning. The textbook‘s perspective regarding various theories of learning is that: Behaviorist theories are probably more accurate. Cognitivist theories are probably more accurate. There is currently no ―right‖ theory, but one will eventually be developed. Different theories may be applicable in different situations. Essay Questions Sometimes we know learning has occurred because the learner engages in a new behavior—one that he or she has never before exhibited. But other kinds of behavior changes may also indicate that learning has taken place. Describe three additional ways in which behavior might change as a result of learning. Give a concrete example to illustrate each one. Distinguish between principles and theories of learning, and give a specific example of each. Theories of learning have both advantages and disadvantages. Describe at least two advantages and one disadvantage; in each case, explain the particular effect that the advantage or disadvantage has on the advancement of our understanding of human learning. CHAPTER 2 LEARNING AND THE BRAIN Multiple Choice Questions Which one of the following is the best example of the central nervous system (rather than peripheral nervous system) at work? Parts of the hindbrain are involved in regulating heart rate. Cells in the retina at the back of the eye transmit information about light. Some cells in the nose respond to certain kinds of chemicals. Some cells in the skin are sensitive to heat or cold. Which one of the following statements most accurately describes a neuron‘s threshold of excitation? A neuron responds when it is stimulated by some of its neighboring neurons, but not when it is stimulated by other neighbors. A neuron fires only when its electrical charge reaches a particular level. A neuron is receptive to stimulation from other neurons only at points where there are gaps in its myelin sheath. A neuron will fire at a maximum rate of no more than once every three seconds. Which one of the following best describes how neurons transmit messages to one another? By stimulating the growth of surrounding glial cells By attaching themselves to the same terminal buttons By fusing the axon of one with a dendrite of the other By sending chemical substances across a tiny gap between them Which one of the following is the best example of a reflex as psychologists define the term? Going to sleep when you are tired Feeling sad when a close relative dies Pulling your foot away from a painful object Jumping up and down for joy when you get a good grade Three of the following describe methods what researchers commonly use to determine how the human brain probably functions. Which one is not a commonly used method to study the brain? Documenting the behaviors of people with various kinds of brain injuries Recording brain activity through PET scans, CAT scans, and similar technologies Measuring the levels of various hormones and other substances in the blood Removing a certain part of an animal‘s brain and observing the animal‘s subsequent behaviors After a severe head injury, Mary has exceptional difficulty setting goals and in other ways planning her actions. Without knowing anything else about Mary‘s injury, you might reasonably conclude that it affected her: forebrain midbrain hindbrain reticular formation Given how the left and right hemispheres of the brain typically specialize, which one of the following activities would be most heavily dependent on the right hemisphere? Writing a speech for a political campaign Following the logic of a persuasive argument Solving for x in a complex algebraic equation Recognizing human forms in a Picasso painting Given the roles that the right hemisphere typically plays in language comprehension, which one of the following tasks would rely most heavily on the right hemisphere? Hearing the rhyme in the words hypocrisy and democracy Writing precise definitions of abstract words such as hypocrisy and democracy Realizing that ―That blonde is really hot‖ has as least two possible meanings Translating Leo Tolstoy‘s novel War and Peace into English Given what psychologists believe to be true about how information is typically stored in the brain, how is the concept dog probably represented in your brain? As a single neuron located in the prefrontal cortex As a network of neurons spread across multiple brain regions As a cluster of interconnected neurons located in the left parietal lobe As a cluster of interconnected neurons located in one of the occipital lobes Which one of the following best describes the growth of neurons during the prenatal period? An overabundance of neurons emerges early in prenatal development, but about half of the neurons die before birth. Neurons continue to be generated at a rapid rate throughout the last six months of the prenatal period. Neurons begin to develop in the fifth month of pregnancy, and they proliferate rapidly during the third trimester. Neurons that will support basic physiological functioning appear in the first two months after conception; those that will be responsible for higher-level thinking processes don‘t appear until two or three months before birth. In the human brain, a great deal of synaptic pruning occurs in early childhood. This pruning appears to be: The unfortunate result of insufficiently stimulating home environments An adaptive process that allows children to deal more efficiently with their environment Due to an imbalance of important nutrients, and especially to low levels of the B vitamins in many children‘s diets Reflective of the fact that the forebrain is slowly taking over responsibility for functions that have previously been regulated by the hindbrain and midbrain As children grow older, many of their neurons begin to transmit messages more rapidly than they did in the early years of life, thanks to: synaptic pruning synaptogenesis myelination maturation of the limbic system During the elementary and secondary school years, much of the brain‘s development occurs in regions of the brain that are largely responsible for thinking and reasoning generation of emotional responses muscular strength and coordination making discriminations among highly similar stimuli John is an adolescent who makes impulsive decisions (e.g., ditching school) and engages in risky behavior (e.g., driving well over the speed limit). His behavior can best be explained by which of the following? Adolescents have limited concepts of consequences and punishment. Adolescents‘ brain stems are still not fully developed, and will not be until middle adulthood. Adolescents‘ pre-frontal cortices are still not fully developed and will not be until their late teens and early twenties. During adolescence, synaptic pruning has stopped. According to the textbook, which one of the following conclusions is most true regarding factors that influence brain development? Genetic factors have the strongest influence on brain development, particularly later in life. Environmental factors and people‘s experiences have the strongest influence on brain development in middle childhood. Together, brain development is shaped by genetic and environmental factors throughout the life span. Environmental factors are particularly influential in abnormal brain development. Three of the following statements are consistent with research findings about factors that influence brain development. Which statement has not been supported by research? Genetic factors predispose some people to learning difficulties or mental illness. High levels of alcohol consumption during pregnancy can lead to mental retardation. High levels of toxic substances (e.g., lead, pesticides) have their greatest negative impact after puberty. Opportunities to learn certain skills may lead to detectable differences in brain structures or patterns of brain activation. In which one of the following situations should we be most concerned about missing a critical period in a person‘s development? Rachel is born with a cataract in her left eye that is surgically removed when she is 8 years old. Phoebe doesn‘t learn how to write until she is 12 years old. Although Ross knows how to count, he gets no formal instruction in mathematics until he is 15. Joey has his first tennis lesson when he is 25. Which one of the following best exemplifies experience-expectant plasticity? Learning how to play the guitar Mastering one‘s native language Understanding abstract ideas in philosophy Applying principles of psychology to real-world settings Which one of the following best exemplifies experience-dependent plasticity? Hearing subtle differences in similar-sounding words Learning how to pronounce words like a native speaker Learning syntactical structures of one‘s native language Learning how to read Which one of the following research findings is most consistent with the concept of core knowledge as described in the textbook? Children must have basic knowledge of numbers and counting before they can master arithmetic operations such as addition and multiplication. Some motor skills are prerequisites for others; for example, children must learn how to walk before they can learn how to run or skip. Some linguistic knowledge is prerequisite to other knowledge; for example, children must know how to read before they can learn how to write. Very young infants appear to have more knowledge of the physical world than they could have acquired from their own, limited experiences with objects. Which one of the following best describes mirror neurons? They are pairs of neurons that have identical functions on opposite sides of the cortex. They are the primary reason why infants can recognize their own reflections as early as 3 months of age. They fire when a person either makes a particular response or observes someone else make that response. They are the only kinds of neurons that are consistently found in all primate species. Which one of the following best describes psychologists‘ current beliefs about the brain and learning? Learning involves changes in synapses and possibly also involves the growth of new neurons and astrocytes. Large doses of certain vitamins promote brain growth and lead to more rapid learning. Left-hemisphere-dominant individuals are, on average, more effective learners than right-hemisphere-dominant individuals. The brains of rapid learners are about 20% larger than the brains of slower learners. Naomi wakes up several hours after a severe blow to her head has rendered her unconscious. She can remember nothing about events leading up to the incident, reflecting the importance of in learning and memory. neurogenesis consolidation a critical period the corpus callosum According to the textbook, which one of the following conclusions is most warranted from research on brain development? To become truly skilled in such domains as art and music, children should begin systematic instruction in these domains before the age of five. The ability to think abstractly depends on the development of many synaptic connections during the first five years of life. Children probably won‘t acquire the basic skills essential to succeed in the adult world (e.g., reading, writing, math) unless they begin developing those skills in the early elementary grades at the latest. Classroom experiences can significantly enhance people‘s cognitive development throughout the elementary, secondary, and post- secondary school years. Essay Questions The textbook describes five general research methods that scientists use to determine how the brain functions. In three short paragraphs, describe three of them. Several teachers tell you that they are ―teaching to students‘ right brains‖ by spending a lot of time on painting, map interpretation, geometry, and other highly visual and/or spatial activities. Critique their claim using what you have learned about how the human brain functions. Someone tries to convince you that parents should put their children in enriching preschool environments by their second birthday at the latest. How would you respond to this individual? In your response: State whether you agree or disagree with the person. Defend your position given recent findings about brain development. Include the following concepts in your discussion: synaptogenesis synaptic pruning experience-expectant and experience-dependent plasticity CHAPTER 3 BEHAVIORIST PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES Multiple Choice Questions Which one of the following statements best describes the view of early behaviorists about how learning can best be studied? Psychologists can determine how learning occurs only if they can identify its physiological basis. Introspection—reporting what and how one is thinking—is likely to yield the most accurate results. To study learning scientifically, researchers must confine their investigations to animal research in a laboratory setting. The study of learning will be more objective and scientific if only observable events are considered. When behaviorists describe an organism as a ―black box,‖ they mean that: Many stimuli have no noticeable effect on the organism. Learning processes occurring within the organism cannot be studied scientifically. Learning is, by its very nature, something that takes place outside the organism. An organism makes many responses even in the absence of any observed external stimulus. Which one of the following statements best reflects behaviorists‘ notion of tabula rasa (―blank slate‖)? Organisms inherit few predispositions to behave in particular ways; instead, the behaviors they exhibit are largely the result of environmental experiences. Stimuli that occur after responses are made are usually more influential on an organism‘s learning that stimuli that occur before responses are made. The things that organisms learn in a new situation largely override the things that they‘ve learned in previous situations; as a result, newly learned behaviors often replace previously learned behaviors. Learning is more a function of what the environment does to the organism than of what the organism does to the environment; in other words, the organism plays a relatively passive role in the learning process. Ivan Pavlov conducted a series of studies that led him to propose his theory of classical conditioning. In these studies, Pavlov observed how a dog learned to: Bark when meat was presented Bark when meat was taken away Wake up when an auditory stimulus (e.g., a bell) was presented Salivate to a simple stimulus such as a light or bell Classical conditioning typically occurs when: A response is followed by two stimuli A response is followed by a single aversive stimulus Two stimuli are presented at about the same time Two responses occur (usually coincidentally) at about the same time Which one of the following responses is most likely to be learned through classical conditioning? Feeling anxious around horses Taking a walk on a nice day Doing homework Waving to a friend When Julie‘s father comes home from work he opens the front door and picks her up to give her a big hug. Before long, Julie starts smiling whenever she hears her father turn his key to open the door. In this situation, Julie‘s smiling at the sound of her father‘s key turning in the door is a(n) ; the hugging is a(n) . unconditioned stimulus; conditioned response unconditioned response; conditioned stimulus conditioned stimulus; unconditional response conditioned response; unconditional stimulus After repeatedly being hugged by her father when he comes through the door, Julie begins to smile when she hears a key turning to open the door opening by any person. Julie‘s behavior can be explained by: spontaneous recovery generalization higher-order conditioning stimulus discrimination Gina became ill after eating Turkey on Thanksgiving and was unable to look at Turkey without feeling ill for two months. However, during that two-month period Gina was able to look at chicken without feeling ill. Gina‘s behavior when presented with chicken is explained by: Generalization extinguishing a conditioned response stimulus discrimination counterconditioning At the dentist‘s office, Teresa has a painful experience that leaves her tense and fearful. The next time her mother brings her to the dentist‘s office, Teresa begins to get tense and anxious. In this situation, the dentist and dentist‘s office are ; Teresa‘s fear of pain is a(n) . unconditioned stimuli; conditioned response unconditioned responses; conditioned stimulus conditioned stimuli; unconditioned response conditioned responses; unconditioned stimulus After a painful experience at one dentist‘s office, Teresa‘s mother takes Teresa to a different dentist, who takes great care to make her visits painless. Teresa is anxious at first, but after a few visits, Teresa gradually becomes less resistant about going to the new dentist. Teresa‘s change in behavior can probably best be explained in terms of . But then Teresa doesn‘t go to see the dentist again until three years later. On her first visit to the painless dentist after that time interval, she is anxious once again, even though she had not been anxious in her previous visits. The return of this response after it had previously disappeared is known as . extinction; spontaneous recovery generalization; discriminative learning higher-order conditioning; discriminative learning generalization; higher-order conditioning Jacob is suffering from a mild case of flu and, as a result, is feeling a bit nauseous. He decides that he needs to eat something to keep up his strength, so he gets out of bed, puts on a heavy sweater to keep himself warm, heats up a bowl of leftover chili, and settles down in an easy chair to watch a television game show while he eats. A few days later, after Jacob has recovered from the flu, one of the stimuli in the situation just described elicits a feeling of nausea. With the phenomenon of associative bias in mind, choose the stimulus that is most likely to elicit nausea. The sweater The chili The easy chair The television game show Paul is usually successful on the math problems his teacher assigns at school, although he occasionally fails on one or two problems. In contrast, Peter‘s experiences with mathematics are almost always associated with frustration and failure. Considering contemporary views of the roles of contiguity and contingency in classical conditioning, who will acquire classically conditioned anxiety regarding mathematics? Both Paul and Peter will develop a considerable degree of mathematics anxiety. Only Paul will develop math anxiety, because the relationship between math and failure is unpredictable. Only Peter will develop math anxiety, because whenever math is presented, failure always follows. Neither Paul nor Peter will develop math anxiety, because neither situation reflects contingency of the CS and UCS. If students associate failure with punishment, and then associate playing sports with failure, they may begin to fear playing sports through a process of: generalization spontaneous recovery higher-order conditioning stimulus discrimination Which one of the following best describes contemporary theorists‘ perspective on classical conditioning? Cognitive factors, such as mental representations of stimuli and predictions that organisms make, must often be considered in addition to observable stimuli and responses. Despite Pavlov‘s early findings to the contrary, higher-order conditioning and generalization seldom occur. Classical conditioning typically occurs only in conjunction with operant conditioning; for example, conditioned stimuli elicit conditioned responses only when those responses are followed by reinforcement. Classical conditioning occurs primarily in artificial laboratory conditions; it rarely occurs in more naturalistic, real-life settings. David is addicted to a drug that increases his blood sugar level, temporarily giving him more energy. David always takes this drug in the bathroom. He finds that he becomes tired when he enters the bathroom and also that he needs more and more of the drug to maintain the same high energy level. From the perspective of classical conditioning, which one of the following is the most likely explanation of David‘s increasing addiction to the drug? Lowering blood sugar level to counteract the effect of the drug has become a conditioned response to the ―bathroom‖ stimulus. David has learned to respond to some drugs but not to others through the combined processes of stimulus discrimination and higher-order conditioning. Taking the drugs provides negative reinforcement, in that David no longer feels tired. Associative bias has predisposed David to associate the bathroom with fatigue. Extinction is one method of eliminating undesirable conditioned responses, but there are several problems associated with its use. Which one is not a problem encountered in using extinction? Some responses extinguish slowly, if at all. Extinguished responses may reappear through spontaneous recovery. Extinction often occurs too quickly to be controlled. Organisms tend to stay away from stimuli they have learned to fear, thus preventing their exposure to the conditioned stimulus in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus. After being bitten by a neighbor‘s dog, Kathy is now afraid of the puppy her family has just adopted. Kathy‘s father gives Kathy a hot fudge sundae; then, while she is happily eating it, he brings the puppy about fifteen feet from where she is sitting. On each successive day, Kathy gets another ice cream treat, and her father brings the puppy a little closer than he did on the previous day. Eventually Kathy is able to pet and enjoy the new puppy. Kathy‘s father is using a procedure known as: generalization stimulus discrimination extinction counterconditioning Nick is extremely anxious whenever he takes a test. From a classical conditioning perspective, a teacher can best reduce his anxiety by: Giving him a few extremely difficult tests at first, and then gradually giving him easier ones Giving him a few easy tests while he is feeling relaxed Reinforcing him for each test question he answers correctly Reassuring him that he can do well if he tries hard Which one of the following educational practices is most clearly derived from behaviorist principles? Having students make overt responses Teaching students how to apply information Asking students to generate questions about what they read Presenting information in a logical sequence that stresses interrelationships among idea Thorndike‘s original law of effect described the ways in which the learning of a response: has an effect on other organisms has an effect on stimuli in the environment has an effect on other responses is affected by the consequences of that response A child who was once spanked for running into a busy street no longer runs into the street. This can best be explained by which one of the following? Pavlov‘s concept of extinction Thorndike‘s original law of effect Thorndike‘s revised law of effect Skinner‘s basic principle of operant conditioning Mr. Loosigian is worried about Jerri, a girl who is struggling in his seventh grade class. He thinks about several different reasons why she might be having so much difficulty with her schoolwork. Which one of the possible reasons that he considers is consistent with a behaviorist perspective of learning? ―Maybe she isn‘t paying attention as much as she should be.‖ ―Maybe I don‘t praise her enough when she does something well.‖ ―Maybe she has trouble understanding the things she reads.‖ ―Maybe she has trouble remembering things from one day to the next.‖ When Lily is presented with money after many different behaviors (e.g., cleaning her room, getting a good grade or eating her vegetables) she is more likely to perform each of those behaviors. The fact that this single reinforcer (i.e., money) can increase many of Lily‘s behaviors is explained by: Classical conditioning Instrumental conditioning Transituational generality Secondary reinforcement theory Six-year-old Jack has recently learned to appreciate the value of money, so his father assigns him some simple housekeeping chores to be performed throughout the week. He tells Jack that completion of these chores will earn him an allowance of one dollar every Saturday. Jack rarely completes his chores. From an operant conditioning perspective, which one of the following is most likely to be the reason why Jack is not doing his chores? There is a delay in reinforcement. Reinforcement is not contingent on the desired response. Money is rarely an effective reinforcer for people. The ―reinforcer‖ is presented before the response. Mr. Smart tells his students that they can do whatever they want for the first ten minutes of class but must then turn their attention to the day‘s assignment. The students are delighted with their ten minutes of free time but they don‘t attend to the assignment when it‘s time to do so. From an operant conditioning perspective, what mistake has Mr. Smart made? There is a delay in reinforcement. He has used negative reinforcement instead of positive reinforcement. Free time is not an effective reinforcer for the students. The ―reinforcer‖ is presented before the response. Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two learning paradigms within the behaviorist tradition. A major difference between these two paradigms is that: Classical conditioning deals almost exclusively with stimuli, whereas operant conditioning deals almost exclusively with responses. Classical conditioning deals almost exclusively with responses, whereas operant conditioning deals almost exclusively with stimuli. Classically conditioned responses are voluntary, whereas responses learned through operant conditioning are elicited by specific stimuli. Classically conditioned responses are elicited by specific stimuli, whereas responses learned through operant conditioning are voluntary