Chapter 2: SOCIAL RESEARCH STRATEGIES; QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH AND
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
research strategy - a general orientation to the conduct of social research: quantitative
research and qualitative research
research method - A tool, such as a survey, a structured interview, or a focus group, that a
researcher uses to explore an area of interest by gathering information (data) that they
then analyze
research questions - an explicit statement, in the form of a question, of what it is that a
researcher intends to find out about. A research question not only influences the scope of
an investigation but also how the research will be conducted and what research strategy
and research design will be chosen.
Key concept 2.1 empiricism - a general approach to the study of reality that suggests that
only knowledge gained through experience and the senses is acceptable, ideas must be
subjected to rigorous testing before they can be considered ‘knowledge’.
theory - an explanation for particular events or patterns that have been noticed
● theories of the middle range - attempt to understand and explain a particular aspect
of the social world, operate in a limited domain, represent attempts to understand
and explain a limited aspect of social life
● grand theories - operate at a more abstract level, do not contain many clues as to
how researchers might use them for the collection of empirical evidence, so abstract
that it is difficult to make the necessary links with the real world to test an aspect of
a theory
deductive approach - test theories, use theory as a basis for their research, researcher
draws on what is known about a particular domain and on relevant theoretical ideas in
order to deduce (come up with) a hypothesis: a speculation that they can test empirically
inductive approach - build theories, theory emerges following research, theory is the
outcome of research and is formed by drawing generalizable inferences out of observations
● iterative strategy - it involves moving back and forth between data and theory
abductive reasoning - starts with an observation and tries to explain it using the most
likely explanation, switching back and forth from the puzzle to the social world and the
literature, moving back and forth may not be distinct stages of the research process itself;
rather, the researcher is thinking about data and theory at the same time. Abduction
acknowledges that the conclusions arising from an observation are plausible, but not
completely certain.
Ontology:
ontology - in the social sciences, a theory of the nature of social entities
ontological issues - that is, issues to do with whether the social world is seen as something
external to people or as something that we are in the process of creating
,Key concept 2.5 objectivism - an ontological position that claims that social phenomena,
their meanings, and the categories that we use in everyday discourse have an existence that
is independent of, or separate from, social actors.
Key concept 2.6 constructionism - an ontological position that says social phenomena and
their meanings are continually being created by social actors, produced through social
interaction and in a constant state of revision.
Key concept 2.7 intersectionality - theory that every person occupies positions within
numerous social categories and that these categories cannot be considered in isolation -
they all influence an individual’s experience.
Epistemology:
epistemological issues - that is, issues to do with what is regarded as appropriate
knowledge about the social world
Key concept 2.2 positivism - an epistemological position that argues for the use of natural
science methods to study social reality, principles: phenomenalism, deductivism,
inductivism, science must be objective. Positivism is empiricist.
Key concept 2.3 realism - an epistemological position that acknowledges a reality,
independent of the senses, that is accessible to the researcher’s tools and theoretical
speculations. Empirical realism - reality can be understood through the use of appropriate
methods. Critical realism - identification of the structures that generate that world,
„critical’ in order to change them (not empiricist, cause some structure cannot be felt by
senses).
Key concept 2.4 interpretivism - an epistemological position that contrasts with
positivism, there are differences between people and the objects of the natural sciences, so
social scientists need distinct research methods to grasp the subjective meaning of social
action. Interpretivism has been influenced by Weber’s idea of Verstehen; the
hermeneutic–phenomenological tradition; and symbolic interactionism.
hermeneutics - concerned with interpretation and understanding, and how history,
culture, and language shape those two key aspects of the human world
phenomenology - how individuals make sense of the world around them
symbolic interactionism - individuals interpret the symbolic meaning of their
environment (which includes the actions of others) and act on the basis of these meanings
Qualitative research:
● usually emphasizes words rather than quantification in the collection and analysis
of data
● emphasizes an inductive approach to the relationship between theory and research,
focusing on generating theories
● has rejected the practices and norms of the natural-scientific model, and of
positivism in particular, preferring to emphasize how individuals interpret their
social world (epistemology: interpretivism)
, ● views social reality as the constantly shifting creation of individual social actors
(ontology: constructionism)
Values reflect the personal beliefs or the feelings of a researcher, and there are different
views about the extent to which they should influence research - and whether we can
control this at all:
● the value-free approach;
● the reflexive approach;
● the conscious partiality approach.
Practical issues / considerations:
1. the nature of your research question(s);
2. whether much research has previously been done on your research topic;
3. the nature of the topic and/or the people being investigated.
Chapter 3: RESEARCH DESIGN
● research design - frameworks for collecting and analysing data in order to answer a
certain questions, the criteria we employ when evaluating the quality of social
research
● five prominent research designs:
a. the experimental design
■ classical experiments or quasi-experiments
■ field or laboratory
b. the cross-sectional design
■ looking at something at one point in society
■ e.g. surveys
c. the longitudinal design
■ panel study
■ cohort study
■ exploring social change
d. the case study design
■ detailed and intensive analysis of a single case
■ critical case, extreme/unique case, exemplifying case, revelatory
case, longitudinal case
e. the comparative design
■ studying two contrasting cases using more or less identical methods
■ the comparative design is essentially two or more cross-sectional
studies carried out at more or less the same point in time
● Three of the most prominent criteria for evaluating social research are reliability,
replication, and validity:
a. measurement validity - whether a measure for assessing a concept really
does reflect that concept
b. internal validity -
c. external validity -
d. ecological validity -
e. inferential validity -
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
research strategy - a general orientation to the conduct of social research: quantitative
research and qualitative research
research method - A tool, such as a survey, a structured interview, or a focus group, that a
researcher uses to explore an area of interest by gathering information (data) that they
then analyze
research questions - an explicit statement, in the form of a question, of what it is that a
researcher intends to find out about. A research question not only influences the scope of
an investigation but also how the research will be conducted and what research strategy
and research design will be chosen.
Key concept 2.1 empiricism - a general approach to the study of reality that suggests that
only knowledge gained through experience and the senses is acceptable, ideas must be
subjected to rigorous testing before they can be considered ‘knowledge’.
theory - an explanation for particular events or patterns that have been noticed
● theories of the middle range - attempt to understand and explain a particular aspect
of the social world, operate in a limited domain, represent attempts to understand
and explain a limited aspect of social life
● grand theories - operate at a more abstract level, do not contain many clues as to
how researchers might use them for the collection of empirical evidence, so abstract
that it is difficult to make the necessary links with the real world to test an aspect of
a theory
deductive approach - test theories, use theory as a basis for their research, researcher
draws on what is known about a particular domain and on relevant theoretical ideas in
order to deduce (come up with) a hypothesis: a speculation that they can test empirically
inductive approach - build theories, theory emerges following research, theory is the
outcome of research and is formed by drawing generalizable inferences out of observations
● iterative strategy - it involves moving back and forth between data and theory
abductive reasoning - starts with an observation and tries to explain it using the most
likely explanation, switching back and forth from the puzzle to the social world and the
literature, moving back and forth may not be distinct stages of the research process itself;
rather, the researcher is thinking about data and theory at the same time. Abduction
acknowledges that the conclusions arising from an observation are plausible, but not
completely certain.
Ontology:
ontology - in the social sciences, a theory of the nature of social entities
ontological issues - that is, issues to do with whether the social world is seen as something
external to people or as something that we are in the process of creating
,Key concept 2.5 objectivism - an ontological position that claims that social phenomena,
their meanings, and the categories that we use in everyday discourse have an existence that
is independent of, or separate from, social actors.
Key concept 2.6 constructionism - an ontological position that says social phenomena and
their meanings are continually being created by social actors, produced through social
interaction and in a constant state of revision.
Key concept 2.7 intersectionality - theory that every person occupies positions within
numerous social categories and that these categories cannot be considered in isolation -
they all influence an individual’s experience.
Epistemology:
epistemological issues - that is, issues to do with what is regarded as appropriate
knowledge about the social world
Key concept 2.2 positivism - an epistemological position that argues for the use of natural
science methods to study social reality, principles: phenomenalism, deductivism,
inductivism, science must be objective. Positivism is empiricist.
Key concept 2.3 realism - an epistemological position that acknowledges a reality,
independent of the senses, that is accessible to the researcher’s tools and theoretical
speculations. Empirical realism - reality can be understood through the use of appropriate
methods. Critical realism - identification of the structures that generate that world,
„critical’ in order to change them (not empiricist, cause some structure cannot be felt by
senses).
Key concept 2.4 interpretivism - an epistemological position that contrasts with
positivism, there are differences between people and the objects of the natural sciences, so
social scientists need distinct research methods to grasp the subjective meaning of social
action. Interpretivism has been influenced by Weber’s idea of Verstehen; the
hermeneutic–phenomenological tradition; and symbolic interactionism.
hermeneutics - concerned with interpretation and understanding, and how history,
culture, and language shape those two key aspects of the human world
phenomenology - how individuals make sense of the world around them
symbolic interactionism - individuals interpret the symbolic meaning of their
environment (which includes the actions of others) and act on the basis of these meanings
Qualitative research:
● usually emphasizes words rather than quantification in the collection and analysis
of data
● emphasizes an inductive approach to the relationship between theory and research,
focusing on generating theories
● has rejected the practices and norms of the natural-scientific model, and of
positivism in particular, preferring to emphasize how individuals interpret their
social world (epistemology: interpretivism)
, ● views social reality as the constantly shifting creation of individual social actors
(ontology: constructionism)
Values reflect the personal beliefs or the feelings of a researcher, and there are different
views about the extent to which they should influence research - and whether we can
control this at all:
● the value-free approach;
● the reflexive approach;
● the conscious partiality approach.
Practical issues / considerations:
1. the nature of your research question(s);
2. whether much research has previously been done on your research topic;
3. the nature of the topic and/or the people being investigated.
Chapter 3: RESEARCH DESIGN
● research design - frameworks for collecting and analysing data in order to answer a
certain questions, the criteria we employ when evaluating the quality of social
research
● five prominent research designs:
a. the experimental design
■ classical experiments or quasi-experiments
■ field or laboratory
b. the cross-sectional design
■ looking at something at one point in society
■ e.g. surveys
c. the longitudinal design
■ panel study
■ cohort study
■ exploring social change
d. the case study design
■ detailed and intensive analysis of a single case
■ critical case, extreme/unique case, exemplifying case, revelatory
case, longitudinal case
e. the comparative design
■ studying two contrasting cases using more or less identical methods
■ the comparative design is essentially two or more cross-sectional
studies carried out at more or less the same point in time
● Three of the most prominent criteria for evaluating social research are reliability,
replication, and validity:
a. measurement validity - whether a measure for assessing a concept really
does reflect that concept
b. internal validity -
c. external validity -
d. ecological validity -
e. inferential validity -
