Edexcel A-Level Religious Studies [9RS0]
Paper 2: Religion and Ethics
2 A study of three ethical theories: U litarianism, Situa on Ethics, and Natural Moral Law
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2 A study of three ethical theories
2.1 Utilitarianism
a) Concepts of utility, pleasure, hedonism and happiness, influences on the emergence of the theory, including social, political and cultural influences, the
significant contribution of Bentham and Mill to a recognised theory. Act and Rule Utilitarianism, the development of the theory, including Preference, Negative
and Ideal Utilitarianism, the application of the theory in historical and contemporary ethical situations, including political and social reform, the concept of
relativism in ethics.
b) Strengths and weaknesses of the theory and its developments, appropriateness of its continuing application and use, assessment of relevant examples,
change in the law and social attitudes vis a vis the theory, compatibility or otherwise with religious approaches.
With reference to the ideas of J Bentham and J S Mill.
2.2 Situation Ethics (1)
a) The ‘new morality’ of the mid-20th century: social, political and cultural influences on the development of Situation Ethics, concepts of agape and
situationalism in ethics, the application of the theory to specific case studies, biblical examples of situationist thinking, such as illustrated in the ministry of
Jesus.
b) Strengths and weaknesses of the theory and its developments, appropriateness of its continuing application and use, assessment of relevant examples,
change in the law and social attitudes vis a vis the theory, compatibility or otherwise with religious approaches.
With reference to the ideas of J A T Robinson and J Fletcher.
2.3 Natural Moral Law
a) Concepts of absolutism and legalism in ethics, early development of natural moral law, biblical and classical foundations of the approach, concepts of
purpose, telos, primary and secondary precepts, contemporary applications and adaptations, including proportionalism.
b) Strengths and weaknesses of the theory and its developments, appropriateness of its continuing application and use, assessment of relevant examples,
change in the law and social attitudes vis a vis the theory, compatibility or otherwise with religious approaches.
With reference to the ideas of Aquinas and B Hoose
,2.1 U litarianism
a) Concepts of u lity, pleasure, hedonism and happiness; social, poli cal and cultural influences on the emergence of the theory
Hedonism and Pleasure Greatest Happiness Principle/Principle of U lity:
Epicurus - Egois c Hedonism (the only thing that is intrinsically valuable is one’s “Greatest happiness/u lity for the greater number of people
pleasure, anything else is a means to securing pleasure for oneself, e.g. working to
earn money to buy things) Teleological, Consequen alist (Outcome and Consequences)
To understand why u litarianism, historically it would be due to the enlightenment where people began challenging the views of the Church.
a) & b) Classical U litarianism - Jeremy Bentham: Act U litarianism
Jeremy Bentham Bentham, in An Introduc on to the Principles of Morals and Legisla on, were amongst the first people who proposed the
(1748-1832) idea of u litarianism. He believed that u lity should be quan ta ve.
• Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, PAIN and PLEASURE
English
• He claimed ethics are “nonsense on s lts”, and thus required to build a simple system.
philosopher,
economist, • He believed that all ethical theories must be supported by ordinary experiences, and any belief in religious values, the
theore cal jurist. reality of God, an a erlife, or existence of inherent rights are irra onal (Link P1T2 - Religious Experience)
He advocated for • Ethics concerned how human beings should behave towards other humans, where it should be guided by observa on
equality and and measurable fact, not by unfounded beliefs , prejudice, or wishful thinking.
eradica on of • An ac on is not intrinsically good nor bad, but the consequences of the ac ons are.
religious beliefs. • Morality does not serve the pleasure of the rich and wealthy alone, or the authori es in a par cular culture system,
but the democra c masses.
Hedonic Calculus
To determine u lity quan ta vely, Bentham came forward with the Hedonic Calculus to determine if an ac on should be performed. It has a set of 7 criterions.
Dura on Intensity Purity Certainty Propinquity Richness Extent
How long does the How intense is the How free of pain is How certain are you How near is the How much pleasure How wide does it
pleasure last? pleasure? pleasure? that it will come? actual pleasure? will it lead to? cover?
Modern Examples: Na onal Ins tute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) - uses a similar system to determine which treatments should be available to the public.
This is Act U litarianism: does not promote a list of rules about which acts are right or wrong, but instead offers a process of weighing up alterna ves.
, Act U litarianism
Why is Bentham’s version called the Rule U litarianism then? Bentham’s Decision Making Process - applied to individual ac ons, rules for each situa on
Apply to Specific Case → Deduce General Rule
e.g. Should I pay for a bus fare? Yes. e.g. I should probably pay, but would s ll need to look at individual cases.
Implica ons of Act U litarianism
Strengths Weaknesses
Situa onalist Approach - case by case standard Pleasure as Quan ta ve - can quan ty be measured? (see Hadyn and the Oyster)
Straigh orward Results - a clear moral answer is determined by the comparison of Imprac cality - using the Hedonic Calculus does not allow for quick decision
quan ty from Hedonic Calculus, without moral dilemmas making as required in real life
Used in Modern Science -a more academic method to determine an ac on, similar Rela vity - it’s quite subjec ve to judge e.g. intensity of pleasure - the same act
in experiments, NICE in the UK, always produces a similar result. could be a 3 for one whilst a 9 for another.
Thorough Considera ons - uses a set of 7 criterions to fully determine if an act is John Rawls: Does Not Avoid Immoral Acts - some ac ons can be considered
moral or immoral pleasurable despite it not being just. e.g. slavery, as long as the majority believed
that it would maximise happiness - minority rights are not necessarily protected.
Challenges to Hedonism
Haydn and the Oyster (Roger Crisp) The Experience Machine (Robert Nozick)
"[Context]…you request the life of Haydn (who lives a frui ul life), the angel sighs, Imagine if there is a machine that allows a person's brain to be s mulated through
‘I'll never get rid of this oyster life. … Look, I'll offer you a special deal. Haydn will die inducing any pleasurable experiences that the subject could not dis nguish from
at the age of seventy-seven. But I'll make the oyster life as long as you like...’ those he would have apart from the machine. He then asks, if given the choice,
would we prefer the machine to real life?
This is a thought experiment to challenge the idea that Pleasure cannot /difficult to
be measured quan ta vely. Even though the oyster (living a very long life) will This is a thought experiment to challenge if pleasure is really intrinsically valuable.
theore cally reach a point where the pleasure it experiences will surpass that of If it is (and the only), people would have an overriding reason to be hooked up to
the human's, most people would s ll choose the life of the human. an "experience machine," which would produce favorable sensa ons. Yet people
wouldn’t be hooked onto it meaning personally happiness is not the most favored.
Paper 2: Religion and Ethics
2 A study of three ethical theories: U litarianism, Situa on Ethics, and Natural Moral Law
`
2 A study of three ethical theories
2.1 Utilitarianism
a) Concepts of utility, pleasure, hedonism and happiness, influences on the emergence of the theory, including social, political and cultural influences, the
significant contribution of Bentham and Mill to a recognised theory. Act and Rule Utilitarianism, the development of the theory, including Preference, Negative
and Ideal Utilitarianism, the application of the theory in historical and contemporary ethical situations, including political and social reform, the concept of
relativism in ethics.
b) Strengths and weaknesses of the theory and its developments, appropriateness of its continuing application and use, assessment of relevant examples,
change in the law and social attitudes vis a vis the theory, compatibility or otherwise with religious approaches.
With reference to the ideas of J Bentham and J S Mill.
2.2 Situation Ethics (1)
a) The ‘new morality’ of the mid-20th century: social, political and cultural influences on the development of Situation Ethics, concepts of agape and
situationalism in ethics, the application of the theory to specific case studies, biblical examples of situationist thinking, such as illustrated in the ministry of
Jesus.
b) Strengths and weaknesses of the theory and its developments, appropriateness of its continuing application and use, assessment of relevant examples,
change in the law and social attitudes vis a vis the theory, compatibility or otherwise with religious approaches.
With reference to the ideas of J A T Robinson and J Fletcher.
2.3 Natural Moral Law
a) Concepts of absolutism and legalism in ethics, early development of natural moral law, biblical and classical foundations of the approach, concepts of
purpose, telos, primary and secondary precepts, contemporary applications and adaptations, including proportionalism.
b) Strengths and weaknesses of the theory and its developments, appropriateness of its continuing application and use, assessment of relevant examples,
change in the law and social attitudes vis a vis the theory, compatibility or otherwise with religious approaches.
With reference to the ideas of Aquinas and B Hoose
,2.1 U litarianism
a) Concepts of u lity, pleasure, hedonism and happiness; social, poli cal and cultural influences on the emergence of the theory
Hedonism and Pleasure Greatest Happiness Principle/Principle of U lity:
Epicurus - Egois c Hedonism (the only thing that is intrinsically valuable is one’s “Greatest happiness/u lity for the greater number of people
pleasure, anything else is a means to securing pleasure for oneself, e.g. working to
earn money to buy things) Teleological, Consequen alist (Outcome and Consequences)
To understand why u litarianism, historically it would be due to the enlightenment where people began challenging the views of the Church.
a) & b) Classical U litarianism - Jeremy Bentham: Act U litarianism
Jeremy Bentham Bentham, in An Introduc on to the Principles of Morals and Legisla on, were amongst the first people who proposed the
(1748-1832) idea of u litarianism. He believed that u lity should be quan ta ve.
• Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, PAIN and PLEASURE
English
• He claimed ethics are “nonsense on s lts”, and thus required to build a simple system.
philosopher,
economist, • He believed that all ethical theories must be supported by ordinary experiences, and any belief in religious values, the
theore cal jurist. reality of God, an a erlife, or existence of inherent rights are irra onal (Link P1T2 - Religious Experience)
He advocated for • Ethics concerned how human beings should behave towards other humans, where it should be guided by observa on
equality and and measurable fact, not by unfounded beliefs , prejudice, or wishful thinking.
eradica on of • An ac on is not intrinsically good nor bad, but the consequences of the ac ons are.
religious beliefs. • Morality does not serve the pleasure of the rich and wealthy alone, or the authori es in a par cular culture system,
but the democra c masses.
Hedonic Calculus
To determine u lity quan ta vely, Bentham came forward with the Hedonic Calculus to determine if an ac on should be performed. It has a set of 7 criterions.
Dura on Intensity Purity Certainty Propinquity Richness Extent
How long does the How intense is the How free of pain is How certain are you How near is the How much pleasure How wide does it
pleasure last? pleasure? pleasure? that it will come? actual pleasure? will it lead to? cover?
Modern Examples: Na onal Ins tute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) - uses a similar system to determine which treatments should be available to the public.
This is Act U litarianism: does not promote a list of rules about which acts are right or wrong, but instead offers a process of weighing up alterna ves.
, Act U litarianism
Why is Bentham’s version called the Rule U litarianism then? Bentham’s Decision Making Process - applied to individual ac ons, rules for each situa on
Apply to Specific Case → Deduce General Rule
e.g. Should I pay for a bus fare? Yes. e.g. I should probably pay, but would s ll need to look at individual cases.
Implica ons of Act U litarianism
Strengths Weaknesses
Situa onalist Approach - case by case standard Pleasure as Quan ta ve - can quan ty be measured? (see Hadyn and the Oyster)
Straigh orward Results - a clear moral answer is determined by the comparison of Imprac cality - using the Hedonic Calculus does not allow for quick decision
quan ty from Hedonic Calculus, without moral dilemmas making as required in real life
Used in Modern Science -a more academic method to determine an ac on, similar Rela vity - it’s quite subjec ve to judge e.g. intensity of pleasure - the same act
in experiments, NICE in the UK, always produces a similar result. could be a 3 for one whilst a 9 for another.
Thorough Considera ons - uses a set of 7 criterions to fully determine if an act is John Rawls: Does Not Avoid Immoral Acts - some ac ons can be considered
moral or immoral pleasurable despite it not being just. e.g. slavery, as long as the majority believed
that it would maximise happiness - minority rights are not necessarily protected.
Challenges to Hedonism
Haydn and the Oyster (Roger Crisp) The Experience Machine (Robert Nozick)
"[Context]…you request the life of Haydn (who lives a frui ul life), the angel sighs, Imagine if there is a machine that allows a person's brain to be s mulated through
‘I'll never get rid of this oyster life. … Look, I'll offer you a special deal. Haydn will die inducing any pleasurable experiences that the subject could not dis nguish from
at the age of seventy-seven. But I'll make the oyster life as long as you like...’ those he would have apart from the machine. He then asks, if given the choice,
would we prefer the machine to real life?
This is a thought experiment to challenge the idea that Pleasure cannot /difficult to
be measured quan ta vely. Even though the oyster (living a very long life) will This is a thought experiment to challenge if pleasure is really intrinsically valuable.
theore cally reach a point where the pleasure it experiences will surpass that of If it is (and the only), people would have an overriding reason to be hooked up to
the human's, most people would s ll choose the life of the human. an "experience machine," which would produce favorable sensa ons. Yet people
wouldn’t be hooked onto it meaning personally happiness is not the most favored.
